The Asian long-horned beetle (''Anoplophora glabripennis''), also known as the starry sky, sky beetle, or ALB, is native to eastern
China, and
Korea
Korea ( ko, 한국, or , ) is a peninsular region in East Asia. Since 1945, it has been divided at or near the 38th parallel, with North Korea (Democratic People's Republic of Korea) comprising its northern half and South Korea (Republic o ...
. This species has now been accidentally introduced into the
United States
The United States of America (U.S.A. or USA), commonly known as the United States (U.S. or US) or America, is a country primarily located in North America. It consists of 50 states, a federal district, five major unincorporated territori ...
, where it was first discovered in 1996, as well as
Canada
Canada is a country in North America. Its ten provinces and three territories extend from the Atlantic Ocean to the Pacific Ocean and northward into the Arctic Ocean, covering over , making it the world's second-largest country by tot ...
, and several countries in
Europe
Europe is a large peninsula conventionally considered a continent in its own right because of its great physical size and the weight of its history and traditions. Europe is also considered a subcontinent of Eurasia and it is located entirel ...
, including
Austria
Austria, , bar, Östareich officially the Republic of Austria, is a country in the southern part of Central Europe, lying in the Eastern Alps. It is a federation of nine states, one of which is the capital, Vienna, the most populous ...
,
France
France (), officially the French Republic ( ), is a country primarily located in Western Europe. It also comprises of overseas regions and territories in the Americas and the Atlantic, Pacific and Indian Oceans. Its metropolitan area ...
,
Germany
Germany,, officially the Federal Republic of Germany, is a country in Central Europe. It is the second most populous country in Europe after Russia, and the most populous member state of the European Union. Germany is situated betwe ...
,
Italy
Italy ( it, Italia ), officially the Italian Republic, ) or the Republic of Italy, is a country in Southern Europe. It is located in the middle of the Mediterranean Sea, and its territory largely coincides with the homonymous geographical ...
and
UK. This
beetle
Beetles are insects that form the order Coleoptera (), in the superorder Endopterygota. Their front pair of wings are hardened into wing-cases, elytra, distinguishing them from most other insects. The Coleoptera, with about 400,000 describ ...
is believed to have been spread from
Asia
Asia (, ) is one of the world's most notable geographical regions, which is either considered a continent in its own right or a subcontinent of Eurasia, which shares the continental landmass of Afro-Eurasia with Africa. Asia covers an are ...
in solid wood packaging material.
Taxonomy and description
Common names for ''A. glabripennis'' in Asia are the starry sky beetle, basicosta white-spotted longicorn beetle, or smooth shoulder-longicorn, and it is called the Asian long-horned beetle (ALB) in North America.
Adults are very large insects with bodies ranging from in length and antennae which can be as long as or 1.5–2 times longer than the body of the insect.
They are shiny black with about 20 white spots on each wing cover and long antennae conspicuously banded black and white. These beetles can fly, but generally only for short distances, which is a common limitation for Cerambycidae of their size and weight. The upper sections of the legs of the adults are whitish-blue. ''A. glabripennis'' can be distinguished from related species by the markings on the wing covers and the pattern of the antennae.
Range, habitat, and hosts
The Asian long-horned beetle is native to eastern Asia, primarily in eastern
China and
Korea
Korea ( ko, 한국, or , ) is a peninsular region in East Asia. Since 1945, it has been divided at or near the 38th parallel, with North Korea (Democratic People's Republic of Korea) comprising its northern half and South Korea (Republic o ...
. Japan is often erroneously included in its native range. It is invasive outside its native range.
In its native range, ''A. glabripennis'' primarily infests plants like
maple
''Acer'' () is a genus of trees and shrubs commonly known as maples. The genus is placed in the family Sapindaceae.Stevens, P. F. (2001 onwards). Angiosperm Phylogeny Website. Version 9, June 2008 nd more or less continuously updated since http ...
,
poplar,
willow
Willows, also called sallows and osiers, from the genus ''Salix'', comprise around 400 speciesMabberley, D.J. 1997. The Plant Book, Cambridge University Press #2: Cambridge. of typically deciduous trees and shrubs, found primarily on moist so ...
, and
elm
Elms are deciduous and semi-deciduous trees comprising the flowering plant genus ''Ulmus'' in the plant family Ulmaceae. They are distributed over most of the Northern Hemisphere, inhabiting the temperate and tropical-montane regions of North ...
trees. In the United States, ''A. glabripennis'' has completed development on species of these genera and also ''
Aesculus
The genus ''Aesculus'' ( or ), with species called buckeye and horse chestnut, comprises 13–19 species of flowering plants in the family Sapindaceae. They are trees and shrubs native to the temperate Northern Hemisphere, with six spe ...
'', ''
Albizia
''Albizia'' is a genus of more than 160 species of mostly fast-growing subtropical and tropical trees and shrubs in the subfamily Mimosoideae of the family Fabaceae. The genus is pantropical, occurring in Asia, Africa, Madagascar, America and A ...
'',
birch
A birch is a thin-leaved deciduous hardwood tree of the genus ''Betula'' (), in the family Betulaceae, which also includes alders, hazels, and hornbeams. It is closely related to the beech- oak family Fagaceae. The genus ''Betula'' contains ...
,
katsura,
ash,
planes, and ''
Sorbus
''Sorbus'' is a genus of over 100 species of trees and shrubs in the rose family, Rosaceae. Species of ''Sorbus'' (''s.l.'') are commonly known as whitebeam, rowan ( mountain-ash) and service tree. The exact number of species is disputed depe ...
''. In Canada, complete development has been confirmed only on maple, birch, poplar, and willow, although oviposition has occurred on other tree genera. Maple is the most commonly infested tree genus in North America, followed by elm and willow. In Europe, complete development has been recorded on maple, ''Aesculus'',
alder
Alders are trees comprising the genus ''Alnus'' in the birch family Betulaceae. The genus comprises about 35 species of monoecious trees and shrubs, a few reaching a large size, distributed throughout the north temperate zone with a few sp ...
, birch,
hornbeam
Hornbeams are hardwood trees in the flowering plant genus ''Carpinus'' in the birch family Betulaceae. The 30–40 species occur across much of the temperate regions of the Northern Hemisphere.
Origin of names
The common English name ''hornbeam ...
,
beech, ash, planes, poplar, ''
Prunus
''Prunus'' is a genus of trees and shrubs, which includes (among many others) the fruits plums, Cherry, cherries, peaches, Peach#Nectarine, nectarines, apricots, and almonds.
Native to the North American temperate regions, the neotropics of Sou ...
'', willow, and ''Sorbus''. The top five host genera infested in Europe, in decreasing order, are maple, birch, willow, ''Aesculus'', and poplar. Not all poplar species are equally susceptible to attack.
Other
economically important trees attacked include
apple
An apple is an edible fruit produced by an apple tree (''Malus domestica''). Apple trees are cultivated worldwide and are the most widely grown species in the genus ''Malus''. The tree originated in Central Asia, where its wild ancestor, ' ...
(''Malus domestica''), mulberry (''
Morus alba
''Morus alba'', known as white mulberry, common mulberry and silkworm mulberry, is a fast-growing, small to medium-sized mulberry tree which grows to tall. It is generally a short-lived tree with a lifespan comparable to that of humans, although ...
''), stone fruits (''
Prunus
''Prunus'' is a genus of trees and shrubs, which includes (among many others) the fruits plums, Cherry, cherries, peaches, Peach#Nectarine, nectarines, apricots, and almonds.
Native to the North American temperate regions, the neotropics of Sou ...
'' spp.),
pear
Pears are fruits produced and consumed around the world, growing on a tree and harvested in the Northern Hemisphere in late summer into October. The pear tree and shrub are a species of genus ''Pyrus'' , in the family Rosaceae, bearing the po ...
(''Pyrus'' spp.),
rose
A rose is either a woody perennial flowering plant of the genus ''Rosa'' (), in the family Rosaceae (), or the flower it bears. There are over three hundred species and tens of thousands of cultivars. They form a group of plants that can be ...
s (''Rosa'' spp.), and black locust (''
Robinia pseudoacacia
''Robinia pseudoacacia'', commonly known in its native territory as black locust, is a medium-sized hardwood deciduous tree, belonging to the tribe Robinieae of the legume family Fabaceae. It is endemic to a few small areas of the United States, ...
'').
![ALB infestation map](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/29/ALB_infestation_map.jpg)
In North America, established populations were first discovered in August 1996 in Brooklyn, New York and has since been found in other areas of New York, New Jersey, Massachusetts, Illinois, Ohio, and Ontario in Canada. However, it has also been eradicated from some regions within these states and provinces.
The first confirmed detection in
South Carolina
)'' Animis opibusque parati'' ( for, , Latin, Prepared in mind and resources, links=no)
, anthem = " Carolina";" South Carolina On My Mind"
, Former = Province of South Carolina
, seat = Columbia
, LargestCity = Charleston
, LargestMetro = ...
was June 4, 2020, at a residence in
Hollywood,
Charleston County. As a result both Clemson University's
State Crop Pest Commission (which regulates crop pests for the state government) and the federal
APHIS declared a
quarantine
A quarantine is a restriction on the movement of people, animals and goods which is intended to prevent the spread of disease or pests. It is often used in connection to disease and illness, preventing the movement of those who may have been ...
.
In Europe, established populations have been found in Austria (in
Braunau am Inn
Braunau am Inn (; German for "Braunau on the Inn") is a town in Upper Austria on the border with Germany. It is known for being the birthplace of Adolf Hitler.
Geography
The town is on the lower river Inn below its confluence with the Salzach, ...
in 2001),
Belgium, England, France, Germany, Italy, Switzerland, and the United Kingdom,
though the beetle had also been intercepted in areas through inspection of international trade goods such as wood packaging.
In January 2021 Austria was declared free of them after 4 years (2
life cycles) of no detections in
Gallspach, the last Austrian
infestation
Infestation is the state of being invaded or overrun by pests or parasites. It can also refer to the actual organisms living on or within a host.
Terminology
In general, the term "infestation" refers to parasitic diseases caused by animals s ...
.
Life cycles
Adult females lay 45–62 eggs in their lifetime by chewing a small pit through the bark of the host tree to the
cambium
A cambium (plural cambia or cambiums), in plants, is a tissue layer that provides partially undifferentiated cells for plant growth. It is found in the area between xylem and phloem. A cambium can also be defined as a cellular plant tissue from w ...
and lay one long egg underneath the bark in each pit. Eggs hatch in 13–54 days depending on temperature. Eggs that have not developed enough, such as those laid in late summer or early fall, will overwinter and hatch the following season.
Larvae are cylindrical and elongate and can be long and wide. Larvae first create a feeding gallery in the
cambial region, but more mature larvae tunnel to the
heartwood
Wood is a porous and fibrous structural tissue found in the stems and roots of trees and other woody plants. It is an organic materiala natural composite of cellulose fibers that are strong in tension and embedded in a matrix of lignin t ...
as they feed. Larvae go through at least five
instars
An instar (, from the Latin '' īnstar'', "form", "likeness") is a developmental stage of arthropods, such as insects, between each moult (''ecdysis''), until sexual maturity is reached. Arthropods must shed the exoskeleton in order to grow or ass ...
over 1–2 years; which can vary due to host or temperature conditions. Larvae expel
frass
Frass refers loosely to the more or less solid excreta of insects, and to certain other related matter.
Definition and etymology
''Frass'' is an informal term and accordingly it is variously used and variously defined. It is derived from the ...
from their tunnels near the original oviposition site. A larva can consume up to 1,000 cubic cm of wood in its lifetime. Asian long-horned beetle larvae do not pupate before they reach a critical weight, so additional larval instars can occur.
Pupation
A pupa ( la, pupa, "doll"; plural: ''pupae'') is the life stage of some insects undergoing transformation between immature and mature stages. Insects that go through a pupal stage are holometabolous: they go through four distinct stages in thei ...
usually occurs in spring at the end of the larval tunnel in the
sapwood,
eclosion
A pupa ( la, pupa, "doll"; plural: ''pupae'') is the life stage of some insects undergoing transformation between immature and mature stages. Insects that go through a pupal stage are holometabolous: they go through four distinct stages in their ...
occurs 12–50 days later, and adults will chew out of the tree approximately one week after eclosion.
Adults feed on leaf
petioles and can chew through bark on small branches to feed on the
vascular cambium
The vascular cambium is the main growth tissue in the stems and roots of many plants, specifically in dicots such as buttercups and oak trees, gymnosperms such as pine trees, as well as in certain other vascular plants. It produces secondary xy ...
.
Eggs, larvae or as pupae can overwinter within the tree. In their overwintering phase, pupae are inactive, and development does not occur. They resume their life cycle when temperatures are above .
Upon emergence, adult females can copulate, although an obligatory maturation period is required for feeding after emergence for ovarian maturation. Laboratory studies have estimated the female maturation period lasts 9–15 days. Adult males have mature spermatozoa before emergence, and feeding is necessary only to sustain their normal activity.
Adults typically lay eggs on the plant they developed on during immature stages rather than colonizing new plants unless population density is high or the host plant is dead.
However, when they do disperse, they can travel up to approximately from their host tree in a growing season in search of new hosts, although in a mark-recapture experiment about 98% of adults were recaptured within of their release point.
Adults will typically infest the crown and main branches first and will begin to infest the trunk as the crown dies.
Adult longevity and fecundity are influenced by conditions such as the larval host plant and temperature. Laboratory reared males and females can live up to 202 and 158 days, respectively.
File:ALBeggs.jpg, Eggs within pits with the bark removed.
File:ALBlarvae.jpg, Multiple instars removed from gallery.
File:ALBpupa.jpg, Pupa within its pupal chamber with frass.
File:ALBadult.jpg, Adult beetle.
As an invasive species
Due to high tree mortality caused by larval feeding outside its native range, ''A. glabripennis'' can change both forest and urban ecosystems. In the United States, it can potentially destroy 30.3% of urban trees and cause $669 billion in economic loss. Early detection is used to manage infestations before they can spread.
Monitoring
Tree infestation can be detected by looking for exit holes 3/8 to 3/4 inches in diameter (1–2 cm) often in the larger branches of the crowns of infested trees. Sometimes sap can be seen oozing from the exit holes with coarse sawdust or "
frass
Frass refers loosely to the more or less solid excreta of insects, and to certain other related matter.
Definition and etymology
''Frass'' is an informal term and accordingly it is variously used and variously defined. It is derived from the ...
" in evidence on the ground or lower branches. Dead and dying tree limbs or branches and yellowing leaves when there has been no drought also indicate ''A. glabripennis'' infestation. Traps can also be used containing a pheromone and a plant
kairomone
A kairomone (a coinage using the Greek καιρός ''opportune moment'', paralleling pheromone"kairomone, n.". OED Online. September 2012. Oxford University Press. http://www.oed.com/view/Entry/241005?redirectedFrom=kairomone (accessed 3 Octo ...
to attract nearby adults. Some acoustic sensors can also differentiate larval feeding within trees. Dogs can also be trained to detect the smell of frass on trees.
Workers have found and reported infested material in warehouses in
CA,
FL,
IL,
IN,
MA,
MI,
NC,
NJ,
NY,
OH,
PA,
SC,
TX,
WA, and
WI in the United States, and in the
Greater Toronto Area in
Ontario
Ontario ( ; ) is one of the thirteen provinces and territories of Canada.Ontario is located in the geographic eastern half of Canada, but it has historically and politically been considered to be part of Central Canada. Located in Central C ...
,
Canada
Canada is a country in North America. Its ten provinces and three territories extend from the Atlantic Ocean to the Pacific Ocean and northward into the Arctic Ocean, covering over , making it the world's second-largest country by tot ...
. After an aggressive containment program and with the last confirmed sighting in 2007, Canada declared itself free of the beetle on April 5, 2013 and lifted restrictions on the movement of tree materials.
In September 1998, US customs regulations were changed to require wooden packing materials from China be chemically treated or kiln-dried to prevent further infestations of the Asian long-horned beetle from arriving. Pest inspection, new rules, and public awareness are the key steps to prevention of the spread of the Asian long-horned beetle.
Quarantine
Quarantines have been established around infested areas to prevent accidental spread of ''A. glabripennis'' by humans. The use of solid wood packing materials for maritime
shipping
Freight transport, also referred as ''Freight Forwarding'', is the physical process of transporting commodities and merchandise goods and cargo. The term shipping originally referred to transport by sea but in American English, it has been ...
is regulated for adequate treatment methods at certain
port
A port is a maritime facility comprising one or more wharves or loading areas, where ships load and discharge cargo and passengers. Although usually situated on a sea coast or estuary, ports can also be found far inland, such as H ...
s.
Management
All infested trees should be removed by certified tree care personnel to ensure that the process is completed properly, and chipped in place, their stumps ground to below the soil level. Insecticides such as
imidacloprid
Imidacloprid is a systemic insecticide belonging to a class of chemicals called the neonicotinoids which act on the central nervous system of insects. The chemical works by interfering with the transmission of stimuli in the insect nervous system ...
,
clothianidin
Clothianidin is an insecticide developed by Takeda Chemical Industries and Bayer AG. Similar to thiamethoxam and imidacloprid, it is a neonicotinoid. Neonicotinoids are a class of insecticides that are chemically similar to nicotine, which has be ...
,
dinotefuran have been used to target adult beetles in canopies or as trunk injections to target larvae. Insecticides within the tree may not translocate evenly, which allows some ''A. glabripennis'' to survive treatments. Combined with efficacy concerns, high cost, and non-target effects on other insects, widespread prophylactic treatment of trees in an infestation area concern scientists.
Over 1,550 trees in Chicago have been cut down and destroyed to eradicate ''A. glabripennis'' from Chicago. In New York, over 6,000 infested trees resulted in the removal of over 18,000 trees; New Jersey's infestation of over 700 trees led to the removal and destruction of almost 23,000 trees, but infested trees continue to be discovered.
Some resistant trees have been developed that quickly fill oviposition pits with sap or produce callous tissue that encases and kills eggs. Non-host species are typically used to replace removed trees.
Biological control
Biological control or biocontrol is a method of controlling pests, such as insects, mites, weeds, and plant diseases, using other organisms. It relies on predation, parasitism, herbivory, or other natural mechanisms, but typically also i ...
has also been considered in some areas such as China. Fungi, such as ''
Beauveria brongniartii
''Beauveria'' is a genus of asexually-reproducing fungi allied with the ascomycete family Cordycipitaceae. Its several species are typically insect pathogens. The sexual states (teleomorphs) of ''Beauveria'' species, where known, are species o ...
,'' can increase mortality in larvae and adults while ''
Metarhizium brunneum
''Metarhizium brunneum'', is the re-instated
name of a group of reassigned ''Metarhizium'' isolates, previously grouped in the species "''Metarhizium anisopliae'' var. ''anisopliae''": based on a multigene phylogenetic approach using near-comple ...
'' and ''
Beauveria asiatica'' can reduce adult survival time. Most parasitoids in the native range of ''A. glabripennis'' have a broad host range, and are not suitable as
classical biological control agents. Woodpeckers can also be a significant source of mortality. Countries working towards eradicating ''A. glabripennis'' typically do not initially utilize biological control.
Eradication
In areas such as North America where infestations are small, ''A. glabripennis'' can potentially be eradicated.
As trees are removed or treated, all host trees on public and private property located within an established distance from an infested area are surveyed by trained personnel. Infested areas are re-surveyed at least once per year for 3–5 years after the last beetle or infested tree is found.
''A. glabripennis'' has been eradicated from Islip, Manhattan, and Staten Island in New York, Jersey City in New Jersey, Chicago in Illinois, and Boston in Massachusetts. It was also declared eradicated in
Toronto
Toronto ( ; or ) is the capital city of the Canadian province of Ontario. With a recorded population of 2,794,356 in 2021, it is the most populous city in Canada and the fourth most populous city in North America. The city is the anch ...
and
Vaughan
Vaughan () (2021 population 323,103) is a city in Ontario, Canada. It is located in the Regional Municipality of York, just north of Toronto. Vaughan was the fastest-growing municipality in Canada between 1996 and 2006 with its population increas ...
, Ontario, but it was rediscovered there in 2013.
In 2019, the U.S. Department of Agriculture declared New York City free of the beetle, after a 23-year-long battle.
In June 2020,
Marie-Claude Bibeau
Marie-Claude Bibeau (born April 4, 1970) is a Canadian politician who was elected to represent the electoral district (Canada), riding of Compton—Stanstead in the House of Commons of Canada, House of Commons in the 2015 Canadian federal elect ...
(the
Minister of Agriculture and Agri-Food
The minister of agriculture and agri-food (french: ministre de l'agriculture et de l'agroalimentaire) is a minister of the Crown in the Cabinet of Canada, who is responsible for overseeing several organizations including Agriculture and Agri-Foo ...
) and
Seamus O'Regan
Seamus Thomas Harris O'Regan (born January 18, 1971) is a Canadians, Canadian politician who served as the Minister of Natural Resources from 2019 to 2021. A member of the Liberal Party of Canada, Liberal Party, O'Regan has represented St. Joh ...
(the
Minister of Natural Resources) declared that ''A. glabripennis'' had been eradicated in
Mississauga and Toronto, the only two areas of known infestation in Canada.
In 2012, the first recorded outbreak of Asian longhorn beetle in the UK was found at
Paddock Wood
Paddock Wood is a town and civil parish in the borough of Tunbridge Wells in Kent, England, about southwest of Maidstone. At the 2001 Census it had a population of 8,263, falling marginally to 8,253 at the 2011 Census. Paddock Wood is a centre f ...
in
Kent
Kent is a county in South East England and one of the home counties. It borders Greater London to the north-west, Surrey to the west and East Sussex to the south-west, and Essex to the north across the estuary of the River Thames; it faces ...
, near small commercial premises that had imported stone from China. Novel techniques used to control the outbreak included the use of two detection dogs trained in Austria that can smell the beetles in trees. At the end of the first year’s survey, 1,500 trees had been felled and burned from fields and roadsides and 700 from commercial premises and private gardens. The beetle was declared eradicated in 2019.
See also
*
Citrus long-horned beetle
*
Emerald ash borer
The emerald ash borer (''Agrilus planipennis''), also known by the acronym EAB, is a green buprestid or jewel beetle native to north-eastern Asia that feeds on ash species. Females lay eggs in bark crevices on ash trees, and larvae feed undern ...
*
References
External links
Asian longhorned beetle in Europe - life cycle, significance and combat infestation.USDA Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service Asian long-horned beetle site.Asian Long-horned Beetle Natural Resources Canada
Bugged: The Race To Eradicate The Asian Longhorned BeetleAsian long-horned beetle Documentary
Forest Disturbance Processes - Asian Longhorned Beetle.US Forest Service: Northern Research Station
Species Profile- Asian long-horned beetle (''Anoplophora glabripennis'') National Invasive Species Information Center,
United States National Agricultural Library
The United States National Agricultural Library (NAL) is one of the world's largest agricultural research libraries, and serves as a national library of the United States and as the library of the United States Department of Agriculture. Located ...
. Lists general information and resources for Asian long-horned beetle.
ALB Emergency Quarantine Map
{{Authority control
Lamiini
Beetles of Asia
Insect pests of temperate forests
Beetles described in 1853
Taxa named by Victor Motschulsky