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Arne Dekke Eide Næss ( ; ; 27 January 1912 – 12 January 2009) was a Norwegian philosopher who coined the term "
deep ecology Deep ecology is an environmental philosophy that promotes the inherent worth of all living beings regardless of their instrumental utility to human needs, and argues that modern human societies should be restructured in accordance with such idea ...
", an important intellectual and inspirational figure within the
environmental movement The environmental movement (sometimes referred to as the ecology movement) is a social movement that aims to protect the natural world from harmful environmental practices in order to create sustainable living. In its recognition of humanity a ...
of the late twentieth century, and a prolific writer on many other philosophical issues. Næss cited Rachel Carson's 1962 book '' Silent Spring'' as being a key influence in his vision of deep ecology. Næss combined his ecological vision with Gandhian
nonviolence Nonviolence is the personal practice of not causing harm to others under any condition. It may come from the belief that hurting people, animals and/or the environment is unnecessary to achieve an outcome and it may refer to a general philosoph ...
and on several occasions participated in direct action. Næss averred that while western environmental groups of the early post–World War II period had raised public awareness of the environmental issues of the time, they had largely failed to have insight into and address what he argued were the underlying cultural and philosophical background to these problems. Næss believed that the environmental crisis of the twentieth century had arisen due to certain unspoken philosophical presuppositions and attitudes within modern western developed societies which remained unacknowledged. He thereby distinguished between what he called ''deep'' and ''shallow'' ecological thinking. In contrast to the prevailing utilitarian pragmatism of western businesses and governments, he advocated that a true understanding of nature would give rise to a point of view that appreciates the value of
biological diversity Biodiversity is the variability of life on Earth. It can be measured on various levels. There is for example genetic variability, species diversity, ecosystem diversity and phylogenetic diversity. Diversity is not distributed evenly on Eart ...
, understanding that each living thing is dependent on the existence of other creatures in the complex web of interrelationships that is the natural world.


Life and career

Næss was born in Slemdal, Oslo, Norway, the son of Christine (Dekke) and Ragnar Eide Næss. Ragnar was a successful banker, and Arne was the younger brother of shipowner Erling Dekke Næss. Næss had two children with his first wife Else and was the uncle of mountaineer and businessman Arne Næss Jr. (1937–2004). In 1939, Næss was the youngest person to be appointed full professor at the
University of Oslo The University of Oslo (; ) is a public university, public research university located in Oslo, Norway. It is the List of oldest universities in continuous operation#Europe, oldest university in Norway. Originally named the Royal Frederick Univ ...
and the only professor of philosophy in the country at the time. He was a noted mountaineer, who in 1950 led the expedition that made the first ascent of Tirich Mir () in
Pakistan Pakistan, officially the Islamic Republic of Pakistan, is a country in South Asia. It is the List of countries and dependencies by population, fifth-most populous country, with a population of over 241.5 million, having the Islam by country# ...
, depicted in the documentary film '' Tirich Mir til topps''. The Tvergastein hut in the Hallingskarvet massif played an important role in the name of Næss's philosophy, "Ecosophy T", as "T" is said to represent his mountain hut Tvergastein. In 1958, he founded the interdisciplinary journal of philosophy ''
Inquiry An inquiry (also spelled as enquiry in British English) is any process that has the aim of augmenting knowledge, resolving doubt, or solving a problem. A theory of inquiry is an account of the various types of inquiry and a treatment of the ...
''. In 1970, together with a large number of protesters, he chained himself to rocks in front of Mardalsfossen, a waterfall in a Norwegian
fjord In physical geography, a fjord (also spelled fiord in New Zealand English; ) is a long, narrow sea inlet with steep sides or cliffs, created by a glacier. Fjords exist on the coasts of Antarctica, the Arctic, and surrounding landmasses of the n ...
, and refused to descend until plans to build a dam were dropped. Though the demonstrators were carried away by police and the dam was eventually built, the demonstration launched a more activist phase of Norwegian environmentalism. When he was 61, while guest-lecturing at the University of Hong Kong, he met Kit-Fai Tsui, a philosophy student who was four decades younger than him, whom he married seventeen years later. In 1996, he won the Swedish Academy Nordic Prize, known as the "little Nobel". In 2005 he was decorated as a Commander with Star of the Royal Norwegian Order of St. Olav for socially useful work. Næss was a minor political candidate for the Norwegian Green Party in 2005. Næss died on 12 January 2009, at the age of 96.


Philosophy

Næss's book '' Erkenntnis und wissenschaftliches Verhalten'' (1936) anticipated many themes familiar in post-war
analytic philosophy Analytic philosophy is a broad movement within Western philosophy, especially English-speaking world, anglophone philosophy, focused on analysis as a philosophical method; clarity of prose; rigor in arguments; and making use of formal logic, mat ...
. In the 21st century, Næss came to be recognized by newer generations of philosophers as a pioneer of (a term that Næss himself used) for his empirical semantics research. One of Næss's early publications on experimental philosophy was ''"Truth" as Conceived by Those Who Are Not Professional Philosophers'' (1938). Næss's main philosophical work from the 1950s was entitled ''Interpretation and Preciseness'' (1953). This was an application of
set theory Set theory is the branch of mathematical logic that studies Set (mathematics), sets, which can be informally described as collections of objects. Although objects of any kind can be collected into a set, set theory – as a branch of mathema ...
to the problems of language interpretation, extending the work of semanticists such as Charles Kay Ogden in '' The Meaning of Meaning''. A simple way of explaining it is that any given utterance (word, phrase, or sentence) can be considered as having different potential interpretations, depending on prevailing language norms, the characteristics of particular persons or groups of users, and the language situation in which the utterance occurred. These differing interpretations are to be formulated in more precise language represented as subsets of the original utterance. Each subset can, in its turn, have further subsets (theoretically ad infinitum). The advantages of this conceptualisation of interpretation are various. It enables systematic demonstration of possible interpretation, making possible evaluation of which are the more and less "reasonable interpretations". It is a logical instrument for demonstrating language vagueness, undue generalisation, conflation, pseudo-agreement and effective communication. Næss developed a simplified, practical textbook embodying these advantages, entitled ''Communication and Argument: Elements of Applied Semantics'' (1966), which became a valued introduction to this pragmatics or "language logic", and was used over many decades as a '' sine qua non'' for the preparatory examination at the
University of Oslo The University of Oslo (; ) is a public university, public research university located in Oslo, Norway. It is the List of oldest universities in continuous operation#Europe, oldest university in Norway. Originally named the Royal Frederick Univ ...
, later known as ''examen philosophicum'' ("exphil").


Recommendations for public debate

Næss's book ''Communication and Argument'' (1966) included his recommendations for objective public debate. Næss argued for adhering to the following principles to make discussions as fruitful and pleasant as possible: # "Avoid tendentious references to side issues"—distractions such as personal attacks, claims about opponents' motivation, or irrelevant explanations or arguments. # "Avoid tendentious renderings of other people's views"—editing quotes or paraphrasing in a biased or misleading way (for example, quoting out of context). # "Avoid tendentious
ambiguity Ambiguity is the type of meaning (linguistics), meaning in which a phrase, statement, or resolution is not explicitly defined, making for several interpretations; others describe it as a concept or statement that has no real reference. A com ...
"—deliberately offering ambiguous statements instead of more precise ones ( equivocation). # "Avoid tendentious argument from alleged implication"—assigning views to opponents that they do not hold ( straw men). # "Avoid tendentious firsthand reports"—information that is untrue or incomplete, withholding relevant information (for example,
lying by omission A lie is an assertion that is believed to be false, typically used with the purpose of deception, deceiving or misleading someone. The practice of communicating lies is called lying. A person who communicates a lie may be termed a liar. Lies ...
). # "Avoid tendentious use of contexts"—presenting material with extra accessories of persuasion and suggestion such as visual or aural appeals to emotion of irony, sarcasm, insult, exaggeration, or subtle (or open) threat. For many years these points were part of a compulsory course in
philosophy Philosophy ('love of wisdom' in Ancient Greek) is a systematic study of general and fundamental questions concerning topics like existence, reason, knowledge, Value (ethics and social sciences), value, mind, and language. It is a rational an ...
(''examen philosophicum'') taught in Norwegian universities. Argumentation theorist Erik Krabbe later said that Næss's principles for effective discussion were precursors of the rules for critical discussion in pragma-dialectics.


Ecosophy T

Ecosophy T, as distinct from deep ecology, was originally the name of Næss's personal philosophy. Others such as Warwick Fox have interpreted deep ecology as a commitment to ecosophy T, Næss's personal beliefs. The "T" referred to Tvergastein, a mountain hut where he wrote many of his books, and reflected Næss's view that everyone should develop his own philosophy. Næss's ecosophy can be summed up as self-realization. According to Næss, every being, whether
human Humans (''Homo sapiens'') or modern humans are the most common and widespread species of primate, and the last surviving species of the genus ''Homo''. They are Hominidae, great apes characterized by their Prehistory of nakedness and clothing ...
,
animal Animals are multicellular, eukaryotic organisms in the Biology, biological Kingdom (biology), kingdom Animalia (). With few exceptions, animals heterotroph, consume organic material, Cellular respiration#Aerobic respiration, breathe oxygen, ...
or
vegetable Vegetables are edible parts of plants that are consumed by humans or other animals as food. This original meaning is still commonly used, and is applied to plants collectively to refer to all edible plant matter, including edible flower, flo ...
, has an equal right to live and to blossom. Næss states that through self-realization humans can become part of the ecosystems of Earth, in distinction to becoming only themselves. According to one writer, Næss defined the ethical consequences of self-realization as: If one does not know how the outcomes of one's actions will affect other beings, one should not act. In an article that summarized Næss's career, Nina Witoszek noted that he qualified his most radical propositions using the rhetorical term "in principle", and he pragmatically recognized that, in Witoszek's words, "concessions are unavoidable; dogmas are ductile; and practice diverges from principle".


Selected works

* * * * * * * * Translation of ''Moderne filosofer''. * * * * * * * "Not a direct translation of Arne Naess' 1976 work, ''Økologi, samfunn, og livsstil'', but rather a new work in English, based on the Norwegian, with many sections revised and rewritten by Professor Naess". * * * *
Review by David Orton, 2006
** Vol. 1: Interpretation and Preciseness: A Contribution to the Theory of Communication ** Vol. 2: Scepticism: Wonder and Joy of a Wandering Seeker ** Vol. 3: Which World Is the Real One?: Inquiry into Comprehensive Systems, Cultures, and Philosophies ** Vol. 4: The Pluralist and Possibilist Aspect of the Scientific Enterprise: Rich Descriptions, Abundant Choices, and Open Futures ** Vol. 5: Gandhi and Group Conflict: Explorations of Nonviolent Resistance, Satyāgraha ** Vol. 6: Freedom, Emotion, and Self-Subsistence: The Structure of a Central Part of Spinoza's Ethics ** Vol. 7: Communication and Argument: Elements of Applied Semantics ** Vol. 8: Common Sense, Knowledge, and Truth: Open Inquiry in a Pluralistic World: Selected Papers ** Vol. 9: Reason, Democracy, and Science: Understanding Among Conflicting Worldviews: Selected Papers ** Vol. 10: Deep Ecology of Wisdom: Explorations in Unities of Nature and Cultures: Selected Papers *


References


External links

*
"Ecosophy from T to X"
– article about Arne's philosophy, by Jim Cocola, in n+1 magazine, April 2006
Arne Naess – Ecophilosophy and Ecology
– Page from the University of Oslo with basic information about Arne Næss and his publications from 1936 to 2005


Photos of Næss's arrest at Mardalsfossen
(in Norwegian)



– Transcript of the film The Call of the Mountain on Arne Naess and the Deep Ecology Movement (1997) * – Excerpts of the film
The Call of the Mountain (complete)

OpenAirPhilosophy website
{{DEFAULTSORT:Naess, Arne 1912 births 2009 deaths 20th-century Norwegian philosophers 21st-century Norwegian philosophers Environmental ethicists Non-profit organisations based in Norway Norwegian environmentalists Norwegian mountain climbers Academic staff of the University of Oslo XU Anti-consumerists People associated with criticism of economic growth Deep ecologists Norwegian political party founders