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The Armenian cochineal (''Porphyrophora hamelii''), also known as the Ararat cochineal or Ararat scale, is a scale insect indigenous to the Ararat plain and Aras (Araks) River valley in the Armenian Highlands and in
Turkey Turkey ( tr, Türkiye ), officially the Republic of Türkiye ( tr, Türkiye Cumhuriyeti, links=no ), is a list of transcontinental countries, transcontinental country located mainly on the Anatolia, Anatolian Peninsula in Western Asia, with ...
. It was formerly used to produce an
eponym An eponym is a person, a place, or a thing after whom or which someone or something is, or is believed to be, named. The adjectives which are derived from the word eponym include ''eponymous'' and ''eponymic''. Usage of the word The term ''epon ...
ous crimson carmine dyestuff known in
Armenia Armenia (), , group=pron officially the Republic of Armenia,, is a landlocked country in the Armenian Highlands of Western Asia.The UNbr>classification of world regions places Armenia in Western Asia; the CIA World Factbook , , and ...
as ''vordan karmir'' ( hy, որդան կարմիր, literally "worm's red") and historically in
Persia Iran, officially the Islamic Republic of Iran, and also called Persia, is a country located in Western Asia. It is bordered by Iraq and Turkey to the west, by Azerbaijan and Armenia to the northwest, by the Caspian Sea and Turkme ...
as ''kirmiz''. Vedeler, citing Cardon (2007), notes that "the Persian name ''Kirmiz'' originally referred to the Armenian carmine, a parasitic insect living on Gramineae grass, but the same name was also used by Arab geographers for insects living on oak trees in Maghreb and Al-Andalus, probably referring to '' Kermes vermilio''", although " is ... not clear whether the 'Kirmiz' dyestuff mentioned in early Arab texts always refers to the use of the insect ''Kermes Vermilio''." English translation by Caroline Higgitt of Cardon's French-language book ''Le monde des teintures naturelles'' (Éditions Belin, Paris, 2003). The species is critically endangered within Armenia. The Armenian cochineal scale insect, ''Porphyrophora hamelii'', is in a different taxonomic family from the cochineal found in the Americas. Both insects produce red dyestuffs that are also commonly called cochineal.


History and art

''Porphyrophora hamelii'' is one of the ancient natural sources of red dye in the Middle East and Europe, along with the insect dyes kermes (from '' Kermes vermilio'' and related species), lac (from '' Kerria lacca'' and related species), and carmine from other ''
Porphyrophora The scale insect genus ''Porphyrophora'' is a large group in the family Margarodidae, which includes the insects Polish cochineal and Armenian cochineal formerly used in dye A dye is a colored substance that chemically bonds to the substra ...
'' species such as the Polish cochineal (''Porphyrophora polonica''), and the plant dye madder (from ''
Rubia tinctorum ''Rubia tinctorum'', the rose madder or common madder or dyer's madder, is a herbaceous perennial plant species belonging to the bedstraw and coffee family Rubiaceae. Description The common madder can grow up to 1.5 m in height. The evergreen ...
'' and related species). It is possible that Armenian cochineal dye was in use as early as 714 BC, when the Neo-Assyrian king
Sargon II Sargon II (Neo-Assyrian cuneiform: , meaning "the faithful king" or "the legitimate king") was the king of the Neo-Assyrian Empire from 722 BC to his death in battle in 705. Probably the son of Tiglath-Pileser III (745–727), Sargon is genera ...
was recorded as seizing red textiles as spoils of war from the kingdoms of
Urartu Urartu (; Assyrian: ',Eberhard Schrader, ''The Cuneiform inscriptions and the Old Testament'' (1885), p. 65. Babylonian: ''Urashtu'', he, אֲרָרָט ''Ararat'') is a geographical region and Iron Age kingdom also known as the Kingdom of Va ...
(the geographic predecessor of Armenia) and Kilhu. The Roman-era physician and pharmacologist
Dioscorides Pedanius Dioscorides ( grc-gre, Πεδάνιος Διοσκουρίδης, ; 40–90 AD), “the father of pharmacognosy”, was a Greek physician, pharmacologist, botanist, and author of '' De materia medica'' (, On Medical Material) —a 5-vo ...
, writing in the 1st century AD, noted that the best ''kokkos baphike'', the kermes shrub and its "grain" ( kermes insect) that some ancient writers likely confused with ''Porphyrophora hamelii'', came from Galatia and Armenia. English translation by T.A. Obaldeston with introductory notes by R.P. Wood. In the
Early Middle Ages The Early Middle Ages (or early medieval period), sometimes controversially referred to as the Dark Ages, is typically regarded by historians as lasting from the late 5th or early 6th century to the 10th century. They marked the start of the M ...
the Armenian historians Ghazar Parpetsi and Movses Khorenatsi wrote specifically of a worm-produced dyestuff from the Ararat region. During the Middle Ages the Armenian cochineal dyestuff ''vordan karmir'', also known in Persia as ''kirmiz'', was widely celebrated in the Near East. ''Kirmiz'' is not to be confused with dyer's kermes, which was derived from another insect. The Armenian cities
Artashat Artashat ( hy, Արտաշատ); Hellenized as Artaxata ( el, Ἀρτάξατα) and Artaxiasata ( grc, Ἀρταξιάσατα), was a large commercial city and the capital of ancient Armenia during the reign of king Artaxias I; the founder of t ...
and
Dvin Dvin may refer to: *Dvin (ancient city), an ancient city and one of the historic capitals of Armenia *Dvin, Armenia, a modern village in Armenia named after the nearby ancient city of Dvin *Verin Dvin, a village in the Ararat Province of Armenia *FC ...
were early centers of the production of ''kirmiz'': during the 8th through 10th centuries
Arab The Arabs (singular: Arab; singular ar, عَرَبِيٌّ, DIN 31635: , , plural ar, عَرَب, DIN 31635, DIN 31635: , Arabic pronunciation: ), also known as the Arab people, are an ethnic group mainly inhabiting the Arab world in Wester ...
and Persian historians even referred to Artashat as "the town of ''kirmiz''". The Arabs and Persians regarded ''kirmiz'' as one of the most valuable commodities exported from Armenia. The Armenians themselves used ''vordan karmir'' to produce dyes for
textile Textile is an umbrella term that includes various fiber-based materials, including fibers, yarns, filaments, threads, different fabric types, etc. At first, the word "textiles" only referred to woven fabrics. However, weaving is not t ...
s (including
oriental rug An oriental rug is a heavy textile made for a wide variety of utilitarian and symbolic purposes and produced in " Oriental countries" for home use, local sale, and export. Oriental carpets can be pile woven or flat woven without pile, using v ...
s) and
pigment A pigment is a colored material that is completely or nearly insoluble in water. In contrast, dyes are typically soluble, at least at some stage in their use. Generally dyes are often organic compounds whereas pigments are often inorganic comp ...
s for illuminated manuscripts and church frescos. Chemical analyses have identified the dye of ''Porphyrophora hamelii'' in Coptic textiles of the 3rd through 10th centuries, a cashmere cloth used in a kaftan from
Sassanid Persia The Sasanian () or Sassanid Empire, officially known as the Empire of Iranians (, ) and also referred to by historians as the Neo-Persian Empire, was the History of Iran, last Iranian empire before the early Muslim conquests of the 7th-8th cen ...
in the 6th or 7th century, silk liturgical gloves from 15th-century
France France (), officially the French Republic ( ), is a country primarily located in Western Europe. It also comprises of overseas regions and territories in the Americas and the Atlantic, Pacific and Indian Oceans. Its metropolitan ar ...
, Ottoman fabrics such as
velvet Weave details visible on a purple-colored velvet fabric Velvet is a type of woven tufted fabric in which the cut threads are evenly distributed, with a short pile, giving it a distinctive soft feel. By extension, the word ''velvety'' means ...
s and lampas of the 15th through 17th centuries, and a 16th-century velvet cap of maintenance that belonged to
Henry VIII of England Henry VIII (28 June 149128 January 1547) was King of England from 22 April 1509 until his death in 1547. Henry is best known for his six marriages, and for his efforts to have his first marriage (to Catherine of Aragon) annulled. His disag ...
. At the time of the
Renaissance The Renaissance ( , ) , from , with the same meanings. is a period in European history marking the transition from the Middle Ages to modernity and covering the 15th and 16th centuries, characterized by an effort to revive and surpass id ...
in Europe, ''Porphyrophora'' insects were so valuable that in
Constantinople la, Constantinopolis ota, قسطنطينيه , alternate_name = Byzantion (earlier Greek name), Nova Roma ("New Rome"), Miklagard/Miklagarth ( Old Norse), Tsargrad ( Slavic), Qustantiniya (Arabic), Basileuousa ("Queen of Cities"), Megalopolis ( ...
during the 1430s, of ''Porphyrophora hamelii'' insects was worth more than of
gold Gold is a chemical element with the symbol Au (from la, aurum) and atomic number 79. This makes it one of the higher atomic number elements that occur naturally. It is a bright, slightly orange-yellow, dense, soft, malleable, and ductile ...
.Some articles improperly cite Cardon to suggest, incorrectly, that Armenian cochineal insects were more valuable, by weight, than gold (i.e., one gram of insects was worth several grams of gold) during this era. Cardon (2007) does, however, note that according to the records of a
Venetian Venetian often means from or related to: * Venice, a city in Italy * Veneto, a region of Italy * Republic of Venice (697–1797), a historical nation in that area Venetian and the like may also refer to: * Venetian language, a Romance language s ...
merchant trading in Constantinople during the 1430s, even the cheapest Armenian cochineal insects were still worth more, pound-for-pound, than some live slaves ( Circassian women and adolescents) that he had bought.
The crimson ''Porphyrophora''-based dyes were especially prized in Europe for dyeing
silk Silk is a natural protein fiber, some forms of which can be woven into textiles. The protein fiber of silk is composed mainly of fibroin and is produced by certain insect larvae to form cocoons. The best-known silk is obtained from the ...
, as the
scarlet Scarlet may refer to: * Scarlet (cloth), a type of woollen cloth common in medieval England * Scarlet (color), a bright tone of red that is slightly toward orange, named after the cloth * Scarlet (dye), the dye used to give the cloth its color * ...
dye kermes was more plentiful, cheaper, and more effective for dyeing
wool Wool is the textile fibre obtained from sheep and other mammals, especially goats, rabbits, and camelids. The term may also refer to inorganic materials, such as mineral wool and glass wool, that have properties similar to animal wool. ...
en textiles, which are heavier than silk and require more dye. It has been estimated that on the order of a half million dried ''Porphyrophora hamelii'' insects were required to dye of silk crimson during this period.400,000 to 560,000 dried ''P. hamelii'' insects were required to dye 1 kg of silk according to the figures of Cardon (2007): 1,000 g to 1,400 g of dried insects per 100 g of silk, with 40 adult females per gram of dried insects. Note that Virey (1840) reports 18,000–23,000 insects per 360-gram troy pound (50–64 insects per gram; not stated whether they were dried). On the comparison between Armenian and Polish cochineal, the author of a 15th-century treatise on silks in
Florence Florence ( ; it, Firenze ) is a city in Central Italy and the capital city of the Tuscany region. It is the most populated city in Tuscany, with 383,083 inhabitants in 2016, and over 1,520,000 in its metropolitan area.Bilancio demografico ...
wrote that "two pounds of the large Armenian cochineal insects will dye as much silk as one pound of small Polish cochineal insects; it is true that it gives a more noble and brighter colour than the small, but it gives less dye." Around the end of the 16th century the
Old World The "Old World" is a term for Afro-Eurasia that originated in Europe , after Europeans became aware of the existence of the Americas. It is used to contrast the continents of Africa, Europe, and Asia, which were previously thought of by th ...
''Porphyrophora'' dyes were supplanted by dyes of the ''Dactylopius coccus'' cochineal species from the Americas, which could be harvested several times per year and yielded a much more concentrated dye. The carmine dyestuff of ''Porphyrophora hamelii'' owes its red color almost entirely to carminic acid, making it difficult to distinguish chemically from the dyestuff of cochineal from the Americas. The dyestuff of ''Porphyrophora polonica'' can be distinguished by its small admixture of kermesic acid, which is the major constituent of kermes from ''Kermes vermilio''. In 1833 the German naturalist Johann Friedrich von Brandt suggested the scientific name ''Porphyrophora hamelii'' after the Russian physician, traveler, and historian of German descent Iosif Khristianovich Gamel (Josef Hamel) ( ru), who visited the Ararat plain in the early 1830s and wrote a report about the "cochineal" insects living there.. Publication of Hamel's 4 May 1833 report on the Ararat cochineal. Hamel's report mentions
Brandt Brandt may refer to: Places United States * Brandt, Ohio, an unincorporated community * Brandt, South Dakota, a town * Brandt Township, Polk County, Minnesota Elsewhere * Mount Brandt, Queen Maud Land, Antarctica * Brandt Cove, South Georgia Is ...
.
File:Vordan Karmir (Cochineal Red) ornament on the ceiling of S. Grigor Chapel, Noravank monastery.jpg, ''Vordan karmir'' ceiling art at
Noravank Monastery Noravank ( hy, Նորավանք, ) is a 13th-century Armenian monastery, located 122 km from Yerevan in a narrow gorge made by the Amaghu River, near the town of Yeghegnadzor in Armenia. The gorge is known for its tall, sheer, brick-red cliffs, di ...
File:Խաչքար Գեղարդ27.JPG, ''
Khachkar A ''khachkar'', also known as a ''khatchkar'' or Armenian cross-stone ( hy, խաչքար, , խաչ xačʿ "cross" + քար kʿar "stone") is a carved, memorial stele bearing a cross, and often with additional motifs such as rosettes, i ...
s'' (cross-stones) at Geghard Monastery painted with ''vordan karmir'' File:Saint Bertrand de Comminges-Gants et Chaussons.jpg, Silk liturgical gloves (left) of Cardinal Pierre de Foix (15th century), dyed crimson with ''P. hamelii'' carmine File:Armenian Stamp Karmin.jpg, A 2006 Armenian postage stamp depicting ''P. hamelii''


Biology

''Porphyrophora hamelii'' is a
sexually dimorphic Sexual dimorphism is the condition where the sexes of the same animal and/or plant species exhibit different morphological characteristics, particularly characteristics not directly involved in reproduction. The condition occurs in most ani ...
species. The adult female, from which carmine is extracted, is oval-shaped, soft-bodied, crimson in color, and has large forelegs for digging. The females can be quite large for a ''Porphyrophora'' species: up to long and wide. It has been noted that one troy pound (360 grams) of cochineal insects requires 18,000–23,000 specimens of ''Porphyrophora hamelii'', but 100,000–130,000 specimens of the sister species ''Porphyrophora polonica'' (or 20,000–25,000 specimens of ''Dactylopius coccus''). The adult male ''Porphyrophora hamelii'' is a winged insect. The life cycle of ''Porphyrophora hamelii'' is mostly subterranean. Newly hatched nymphs emerge from the ground in the springtime and crawl until they find the
root In vascular plants, the roots are the organs of a plant that are modified to provide anchorage for the plant and take in water and nutrients into the plant body, which allows plants to grow taller and faster. They are most often below the sur ...
s of certain grassy plants that grow in saline soil, such as ''Aeluropus littoralis'' ( hy, որդանխոտ (genus ''Aeluropus''), literally "worm's grass") and the common reed ''Phragmites australis''. The nymphs continue to feed on these roots throughout the spring and summer, forming protective
pearl A pearl is a hard, glistening object produced within the soft tissue (specifically the mantle) of a living shelled mollusk or another animal, such as fossil conulariids. Just like the shell of a mollusk, a pearl is composed of calcium ca ...
-like cysts in the process. From mid-September to mid-October adults emerge from the ground between 5 a.m. and 10 a.m. to mate.Cardon (2007) cites her own field mission in Armenia in 1989 as well as the papers by Jakubski (1965) and Mktrtchian and Sarkisov (1985) for her description of ''Porphyrophora hamelii'' biology, which states that the mating time is from 5 a.m. to 10 a.m. The ''Soviet Armenian Encyclopedia'' (1982) and the online ''Red Book of Armenia'' (which cites Mktchyan and Sarkisov (1985) and others) state that the mating time is from 6 a.m. to 11 a.m. Note that in 1982 and 1985 the emergence of the insects in early September would have been in Armenian Summer Time (UTC+5), whereas the Republic of Armenia has been on UTC+4 time year-round since 2012. The adult insects, lacking mouthparts, do not feed. Adult males live for only a few days, but adult females can live longer, burrowing into the ground to lay their eggs.


Habitat and conservation

The red dye-producing insects of the Ararat plain were once plentiful: a 19th-century French traveler wrote that shepherds' flocks, when led to drink from the Araxes (Araks) River, would appear bloody from the insects. In the mid-20th century the extent of occurrence in Armenia was with a recorded distribution that included the
Ararat Ararat or in Western Armenian Ararad may refer to: Personal names * Ararat ( hy, Արարատ), a common first name for Armenian males (pronounced Ararad in Western Armenian) * Ararat or Araratian, a common family name for Armenians (pronounced A ...
and Armavir provinces in Armenia as well as the Turkish, Iranian, and Russian
Caucasus The Caucasus () or Caucasia (), is a region between the Black Sea and the Caspian Sea, mainly comprising Armenia, Azerbaijan, Georgia (country), Georgia, and parts of Southern Russia. The Caucasus Mountains, including the Greater Caucasus range ...
, but by the 1990s the extent of occurrence in Armenia had shrunk to about , mostly in Armavir Province. During the
Soviet The Soviet Union,. officially the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics. (USSR),. was a transcontinental country that spanned much of Eurasia from 1922 to 1991. A flagship communist state, it was nominally a federal union of fifteen national ...
period,
desalination Desalination is a process that takes away mineral components from saline water. More generally, desalination refers to the removal of salts and minerals from a target substance, as in soil desalination, which is an issue for agriculture. Salt ...
of the Armenian salt marshes to create "economic and agricultural regions", and the creation of lakes for fisheries, "severely restricted the habitable area for the insects and endangered their existence." The population in Armenia resides almost entirely in the Vordan Karmir State Reservation, a salt meadow habitat of northwest of Arazap village and in the north of Jrarat village established in 1987 near the Araks River border with
Turkey Turkey ( tr, Türkiye ), officially the Republic of Türkiye ( tr, Türkiye Cumhuriyeti, links=no ), is a list of transcontinental countries, transcontinental country located mainly on the Anatolia, Anatolian Peninsula in Western Asia, with ...
, plus a site southeast of Ararat village and a few patches of several
hectare The hectare (; SI symbol: ha) is a non-SI metric unit of area equal to a square with 100- metre sides (1 hm2), or 10,000 m2, and is primarily used in the measurement of land. There are 100 hectares in one square kilometre. An acre is ...
s elsewhere. There have been no recent scientific reports on populations of ''Porphyrophora hamelii'' outside the surroundings of Mount Ararat. ''Porphyrophora hamelii'' is considered critically endangered within Armenia by meeting the following conditions: an area of occupancy of less than , plus severely fragmented occupancy or known to exist at only a single location, plus continued decline (observed, inferred, or projected) in the area of occurrence, area of occupancy, and area, extent, and/or quality of habitat; and an extent of occurrence of less than with the aforementioned conditions of continued decline. Threats to the ''Porphyrophora hamelii'' population in Armenia include the development of saline lands, agricultural improvements, uncontrolled
livestock Livestock are the domesticated animals raised in an agricultural setting to provide labor and produce diversified products for consumption such as meat, eggs, milk, fur, leather, and wool. The term is sometimes used to refer solely to anima ...
grazing, and possibly
climate change In common usage, climate change describes global warming—the ongoing increase in global average temperature—and its effects on Earth's climate system. Climate change in a broader sense also includes previous long-term changes to ...
. Natural foes of the species include mold mites, lady beetles, harvester ants, and erratic ants.


References

{{Taxonbar, from=Q10637838 Margarodidae Endemic fauna of Armenia Insects of Asia Animal dyes Armenian art Insects described in 1833 Taxa named by Johann Friedrich von Brandt Taxa named by Julius Theodor Christian Ratzeburg