![Ariospagos](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/ba/Ariospagos.jpg)
The Areopagus () is a prominent rock
outcrop
An outcrop or rocky outcrop is a visible exposure of bedrock or ancient superficial deposits on the surface of the Earth.
Features
Outcrops do not cover the majority of the Earth's land surface because in most places the bedrock or superficia ...
ping located northwest of the
Acropolis in
Athens, Greece. Its English name is the Late Latin composite form of the Greek name Areios Pagos, translated "Hill of
Ares" ( grc, Ἄρειος Πάγος). The name ''Areopagus'' also referred, in classical times, to the Athenian governing council, later restricted to the Athenian judicial council or court that tried cases of deliberate homicide, wounding and religious matters, as well as cases involving arson of olive trees, because they convened in this location.
The war god Ares was supposed to have been tried by the other
gods
A deity or god is a supernatural being who is considered divine or sacred. The ''Oxford Dictionary of English'' defines deity as a god or goddess, or anything revered as divine. C. Scott Littleton defines a deity as "a being with powers greater ...
on the Areopagus for the murder of
Poseidon
Poseidon (; grc-gre, Ποσειδῶν) was one of the Twelve Olympians in ancient Greek religion and myth, god of the sea, storms, earthquakes and horses.Burkert 1985pp. 136–139 In pre-Olympian Bronze Age Greece, he was venerated as a ...
's son
Halirrhothius Halirrhothius (; Ancient Greek: Ἁλιρρόθιος, ''Halirrhóthios'', "sea-foam") was the Athenian son of Poseidon and Euryte or BathycleiaScholia on Pindar, ''Olympian Ode'' 10.83c in Greek mythology. He was also called the son of Perieres an ...
(a typical example of an
aetiological myth).
History
![Acropolis from the Areopagus](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/ff/Acropolis_from_the_Areopagus.jpg)
The exact origin of the Areopagus is unclear. In pre-classical times (before the 5th century BC), the Areopagus may have been a council of elders for the city of Athens, and membership was restricted to those who had held high public office, in this case that of
Archon. Conversely, it may have also begun almost exclusively as a homicide court and judicial body. While there is no true consensus, homicide trials seem to have been held on the Areopagus hill as early as the 7th century BC and possibly as far back as the mid-8th century BC.
In 594 BC, the Areopagus was heavily restructured by
Solon
Solon ( grc-gre, Σόλων; BC) was an Athenian statesman, constitutional lawmaker and poet. He is remembered particularly for his efforts to legislate against political, economic and moral decline in Archaic Athens.Aristotle ''Politics'' ...
, as was the rest of the Athenian state. Aristotle suggests that he confirmed its competence over cases of treason (eisangelia, εἰσαγγελία) and its guardianship of the laws (nomophylakia, νομοφυλακία). Solon's entrusting of the nomophylakia to the Areopagus may imply that the council was invested with maintaining the stability of his reforms after he left Athens.
Under the reforms of Cleisthenes enacted in 508/507 BC, the
Boule (βουλή) or council was expanded from 400 to 500 men, and was formed of 50 men from each of ten clans or phylai (φυλαί). There is very little evidence to suggest that Cleisthenes may have altered the composition or the jurisdiction of the Areopagus, given that he himself was likely a member of the council.
In 462/461 BC,
Ephialtes
Ephialtes ( grc-gre, Ἐφιάλτης, ''Ephialtēs'') was an ancient Athenian politician and an early leader of the democratic movement there. In the late 460s BC, he oversaw reforms that diminished the power of the Areopagus, a traditional ba ...
may have put through reforms which deprived the Areopagus of almost all its functions except that of a murder tribunal in favour of
Heliaia Heliaia or Heliaea ( grc, Ἡλιαία; Doric: Ἁλία ''Halia'') was the supreme court of ancient Athens. The view generally held among scholars is that the court drew its name from the ancient Greek verb , which means ''congregate''. Another ve ...
. While this perception is corroborated by most ancient authors, it may have merely been a retrojection by those writing long after the 5th century BC. This is because there is little evidence to suggest that the Areopagus had done anything of note to warrant an attack on its powers by the time of Ephialtes. Regardless, over the course of the 5th century BC, the Areopagus did lose its competence over eisangelia and
dokimasia (δοκιμασία), the initial examination of those elected into office, though it is unknown if this was because of Ephialtes.
In ''
The Eumenides
The ''Oresteia'' ( grc, Ὀρέστεια) is a trilogy of Greek tragedies written by Aeschylus in the 5th century BCE, concerning the murder of Agamemnon by Clytemnestra, the murder of Clytemnestra by Orestes, the trial of Orestes, the end of t ...
'' of
Aeschylus
Aeschylus (, ; grc-gre, Αἰσχύλος ; c. 525/524 – c. 456/455 BC) was an ancient Greek tragedian, and is often described as the father of tragedy. Academic knowledge of the genre begins with his work, and understanding of earlier Greek ...
(458 BC), the Areopagus is the site of the trial of
Orestes
In Greek mythology, Orestes or Orestis (; grc-gre, Ὀρέστης ) was the son of Clytemnestra and Agamemnon, and the brother of Electra. He is the subject of several Ancient Greek plays and of various myths connected with his madness an ...
for killing his mother (
Clytemnestra
Clytemnestra (; grc-gre, Κλυταιμνήστρα, ''Klytaimnḗstrā'', ), in Greek mythology, was the wife of Agamemnon, king of Mycenae, and the twin sister of Helen of Troy. In Aeschylus' '' Oresteia'', she murders Agamemnon – said by E ...
) and her lover (
Aegisthus
Aegisthus (; grc, Αἴγισθος; also transliterated as Aigisthos, ) was a figure in Greek mythology. Aegisthus is known from two primary sources: the first is Homer's '' Odyssey'', believed to have been first written down by Homer at th ...
).
Phryne
Phryne (; grc, Φρύνη, Phrū́nē, 371 BC – after 316 BC) was an ancient Greek hetaira (courtesan). From Thespiae in Boeotia, she was active in Athens, where she became one of the wealthiest women in Greece. She is best kno ...
, a
hetaera
Hetaira (plural hetairai (), also hetaera (plural hetaerae ), ( grc, ἑταίρα, "companion", pl. , la, hetaera, pl. ) was a type of prostitute in ancient Greece, who served as an artist, entertainer and conversationalist in addition to pro ...
of the 4th century BC who was famed for her beauty, appeared before the Areopagus accused of profaning the
Eleusinian mysteries
The Eleusinian Mysteries ( el, Ἐλευσίνια Μυστήρια, Eleusínia Mystḗria) were initiations held every year for the cult of Demeter and Persephone based at the Panhellenic Sanctuary of Elefsina in ancient Greece. They are th ...
. One story has her letting her cloak drop and so impressing the judges with her almost divine form that she was summarily acquitted.
In the second half of the 4th century BC, the Areopagus grew in influence and political power, and contributed to the anti-
Macedonian faction of the city. It conducted an investigation on charges of treason and bribery (apophasis, ἀπόφασις) against
Demosthenes
Demosthenes (; el, Δημοσθένης, translit=Dēmosthénēs; ; 384 – 12 October 322 BC) was a Greek statesman and orator in ancient Athens. His orations constitute a significant expression of contemporary Athenian intellectual pr ...
as a result of the
Harpalus affair in 324 BC. At the same time, the Areopagus may have also regained power over the nomophylakia, which had been lost to reforms in the 5th century BC.
The Areopagus continued to function as a body of former archons in
Roman
Roman or Romans most often refers to:
*Rome, the capital city of Italy
*Ancient Rome, Roman civilization from 8th century BC to 5th century AD
*Roman people, the people of ancient Rome
*'' Epistle to the Romans'', shortened to ''Romans'', a lette ...
times. After Sulla's
capture of Athens in 86/87 BC and subsequent restructuring of the city's political structure, it was elevated to one of the most prestigious and politically powerful institutions in Athens. The Roman statesman
Cicero
Marcus Tullius Cicero ( ; ; 3 January 106 BC – 7 December 43 BC) was a Roman statesman, lawyer, scholar, philosopher, and academic skeptic, who tried to uphold optimate principles during the political crises that led to the esta ...
once said of the council, "when one says 'the Athenian state is ruled by the council,' the words 'of the Areopagus' are omitted."
Acts 17:16-34 prominently features the Areopagus as the setting for the
Apostle Paul's Areopagus sermon
The Areopagus sermon refers to a sermon delivered by Apostle Paul in Athens, at the Areopagus, and recounted in Acts 17:16–34... The Areopagus sermon is the most dramatic and most fully-reported speech of the missionary career of Saint Paul ...
during his visit to Athens, notably leading to the conversion of
Dionysius the Areopagite
Dionysius the Areopagite (; grc-gre, Διονύσιος ὁ Ἀρεοπαγίτης ''Dionysios ho Areopagitēs'') was an Athenian judge at the Areopagus Court in Athens, who lived in the first century. A convert to Christianity, he is venerate ...
. However, it is unclear whether Paul gave his speech before the Areopagus council in the setting of a judicial investigation or trial, or on the physical location of the Areopagus hill as an informal speech. Additionally, the Areopagus likely would not have met on the actual Areopagus hill by the time of Paul's visit, but rather in the
agora or the
Stoa Basileios
Stoa Basileios ( el, στοά βασίλειος or τοῦ βασιλέως), meaning Royal Stoa, was a stoa constructed in Ancient Athens in the 6th century BC and substantially altered in the 5th century BC. It was located in the northwest corn ...
.
The Areopagus ceased operation as a political council by at least the early 5th century AD, according to
Theodoret of Cyrus
Theodoret of Cyrus or Cyrrhus ( grc-gre, Θεοδώρητος Κύρρου; AD 393 – 458/466) was an influential theologian of the School of Antioch, biblical commentator, and Christian bishop of Cyrrhus (423–457). He played a pi ...
.
After its closure, the Areopagus hill was inhabited by various houses and dwellings while under
Byzantine rule. The only buildings of note on the hill during this time included a church and monastery both dedicated to Dionysios the Areopagite.
The term "Areopagus" also refers to the judicial body of aristocratic origin that subsequently formed the
higher court of modern
Greece
Greece,, or , romanized: ', officially the Hellenic Republic, is a country in Southeast Europe. It is situated on the southern tip of the Balkans, and is located at the crossroads of Europe, Asia, and Africa. Greece shares land borders ...
.
Near the Areopagus was also constructed the basilica of
Dionysius Areopagites.
Modern references
*The English poet
John Milton titled his defence of freedom of the press "
Areopagitica
''Areopagitica; A speech of Mr. John Milton for the Liberty of Unlicenc'd Printing, to the Parlament of England'' is a 1644 prose polemic by the English poet, scholar, and polemical author John Milton opposing licensing and censorship. ''Are ...
", arguing that the censors of ancient Athens, based at the Areopagus, had not practiced the kind of prior restraint of publication being called for in the English Parliament of Milton's time.
*The Areopagus Society, formed in 1893, is one of the oldest clubs at the preparatory
Hotchkiss School, Connecticut, USA, and meets to debate on certain topics.
*"Areopagus" is the title of the second poem in Irish poet
Louis MacNeice's 1952 collection, ''Ten Burnt Offerings''.
See also
*
Areopagus sermon
The Areopagus sermon refers to a sermon delivered by Apostle Paul in Athens, at the Areopagus, and recounted in Acts 17:16–34... The Areopagus sermon is the most dramatic and most fully-reported speech of the missionary career of Saint Paul ...
*
Areopagus of Eastern Continental Greece
The Areopagus of Eastern Continental Greece ( el, Άρειος Πάγος της Ανατολικής Χέρσου Ελλάδος) was a provisional regime that existed in eastern Central Greece during the Greek War of Independence.
Background
...
, a regional Greek administration during the
Greek Revolution of 1821, which was named after the Ancient Athenian institution.
Footnotes
Further reading
The Constitutional Antiquities of Sparta and Athensby Gustav Gilbert
Pantologia by John Mason Good, Olinthus Gregory, Newton Bosworth. p. 565The London Encyclopaedia, Volume 2. Edited by Thomas Curtis. p. 647
External links
Acts 17:16-34– A Biblical account of St. Paul discussing with the Areopagus the nature of the Christian God. Also referred to is the story concerning the altar to "The Unknown God."
*
{{Authority control
Ancient Greek geography
Landmarks in Athens
Greek courts of appeal
Ancient Greek buildings and structures in Athens
Ares
Hills of Athens
Ancient Greek law