![Burmuda Houses](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/ff/Burmuda_Houses.jpg)
The
architecture
Architecture is the art and technique of designing and building, as distinguished from the skills associated with construction. It is both the process and the product of sketching, conceiving, planning, designing, and constructing building ...
of
Bermuda
)
, anthem = "God Save the King"
, song_type = National song
, song = "Hail to Bermuda"
, image_map =
, map_caption =
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, mapsize2 =
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, subdivision_type = Sovereign state
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has developed over the past four centuries. The archipelago's isolation, environment, climate, and scarce resources have been key driving points, though inspiration from Europe, the Caribbean and the Americas is evident. Distinctive elements appeared with initial settlement in the early 17th century, and by the second half of that century features that remain common today began to appear.
Pastel Bermuda
cottages are often regarded as a hallmark of the island, along with pink beaches and
Bermuda shorts; the style has even been described as the country's only indigenous art form.
[The Town of St. George World Heritage Site: Advice for renovating, restoring, maintaining or developing a building within the Town of St. George]
In addition to the local style, historical military buildings and forts and
modern office buildings are highly visible. The historical architecture of Bermuda has received recognition from
UNESCO
The United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization is a specialized agency of the United Nations (UN) aimed at promoting world peace and security through international cooperation in education, arts, sciences and culture. It ...
, with the
Town of St. George and some twenty-two forts and military facilities in
St. George's Parish being declared
World Heritage Sites
A World Heritage Site is a landmark or area with legal protection by an international convention administered by the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO). World Heritage Sites are designated by UNESCO for ...
.
Bermuda style
![Bermuda roof](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b0/Bermuda_roof.jpg)
The archetypical Bermuda house is a low, squared building with a stepped, white roof and pastel-painted walls, both of which are made out of stone. Between roof and wall are a series of
eave
The eaves are the edges of the roof which overhang the face of a wall and, normally, project beyond the side of a building. The eaves form an overhang to throw water clear of the walls and may be highly decorated as part of an architectural styl ...
s painted a third colour, which is also used on the wooden shutters of relatively small windows. Often built on a slope, there is a set of stairs, wider at the base than at the top, leading up to a porch or
veranda
A veranda or verandah is a roofed, open-air gallery or porch, attached to the outside of a building. A veranda is often partly enclosed by a railing and frequently extends across the front and sides of the structure.
Although the form ''vera ...
around the front door. Rare embellishments include a brick pattern down the corners of the building, and narrow
moulding to highlight features such as windows.
The roofs are designed to catch water, of which there is no fresh supply in Bermuda apart from rain. The walls are designed to restrict damage from hurricanes and are required by law to be able to withstand wind speeds of over .
Houses are often given names.
History and development
Initial development (1600–1700)
![State House of Bermuda (1614)](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/6b/State_House_of_Bermuda_%281614%29.png)
The predominance of stone as a building material came about early in Bermuda's history. The first settlers built using the native and abundant
Bermuda cedar
''Juniperus bermudiana'' is a species of juniper endemic to Bermuda. This species is most commonly known as Bermuda cedar, but is also referred to as Bermuda juniper (Bermudians refer to it simply as ''cedar''). Historically, this tree formed wo ...
, but such structures were rarely able to withstand either the normal winds or the occasional
hurricane
A tropical cyclone is a rapidly rotating storm system characterized by a low-pressure center, a closed low-level atmospheric circulation, strong winds, and a spiral arrangement of thunderstorms that produce heavy rain and squalls. Depend ...
.
[Raine, David F. ''Architecture Bermuda Style'' (Bermuda: Pompano 1988), p. 11] Furthermore, the
Somers Isles Company
The Somers Isles Company (fully, the Company of the City of London for the Plantacion of The Somers Isles or the Company of The Somers Isles) was formed in 1615 to operate the English colony of the Somers Isles, also known as Bermuda, as a commerc ...
intended to exploit the value of cedar wood, particularly for shipbuilding, and soon passed laws that forbade the felling and use of that wood without express permission. The only material left for settlers to use was Bermuda's
limestone
Limestone ( calcium carbonate ) is a type of carbonate sedimentary rock which is the main source of the material lime. It is composed mostly of the minerals calcite and aragonite, which are different crystal forms of . Limestone forms whe ...
foundation (often called "
coral
Corals are marine invertebrates within the class Anthozoa of the phylum Cnidaria. They typically form compact colonies of many identical individual polyps. Coral species include the important reef builders that inhabit tropical oceans and ...
" for its origin), with the stone being cut into square bricks – typically about by .
This method of using large stone blocks proved expensive, with one 1890 estimate being that a Bermuda house cost three times more than it should. The main cause of this expense was high labour costs, though the rarity of building-quality limestone also contributed. However, this did not prove expensive enough to price the poor – particularly blacks – out of the market, thus restricting the growth of
shanty towns.
[Drysdale, William.]
"Bermuda's stone houses; how the soft rock is cut and hardened"
''New York Times'', March 30, 1980.
The archetypical house of the late 17th century had several distinguishing features. The building was usually quite simple in design, with a similar plan to a contemporary English farmhouse. Though usually only one storey tall, most were built facing out from slopes (possibly to preserve the comparatively fertile valleys for agriculture, a dominant industry until the 20th century
), thus necessitating a set of steps to the front entrance. These staircases were styled to curve out, so ending up far wider at the base than at the top. This flared style, known locally today as "Welcoming Arm" stairs, remains common.
[Raine, p. 23] Less common variants used parallel arms, and in the narrow streets of the Town of St. George staircases were often flush with the wall.
[Jarvis, Michael, ''Bermuda Architectural Heritage Series: St. George's'' (]Bermuda National Trust
The Bermuda National Trust is a charitable organization which works to preserve and protect the heritage of Bermuda.
According to its website, the organization has the following purposes:
"The Bermuda National Trust is a charity, establishe ...
: 1998), p. 91 At the top of the stairs would be a porch-like
vestibule, larger than was common elsewhere, where visitors and passersby could rest in the shade. These porch areas were continuously expanded with furniture and
muslin
Muslin () is a cotton fabric of plain weave. It is made in a wide range of weights from delicate sheers to coarse sheeting. It gets its name from the city of Mosul, Iraq, where it was first manufactured.
Muslin of uncommonly delicate hands ...
mosquito nets
A mosquito net is a type of meshed curtain that is circumferentially draped over a bed or a sleeping area, to offer the sleeper barrier protection against bites and stings from mosquitos, flies, and other pest insects, and thus against the di ...
.
[Raine, p. 21] Wooden
window shutters
A window shutter is a solid and stable window covering usually consisting of a frame of vertical stiles and horizontal rails (top, centre and bottom). Set within this frame can be louvers (both operable or fixed, horizontal or vertical), solid ...
became common, particularly "jalousies" — which were hinged at the top — that were probably imported from the
West Indies
The West Indies is a subregion of North America, surrounded by the North Atlantic Ocean and the Caribbean Sea that includes 13 independent island countries and 18 dependencies and other territories in three major archipelagos: the Greate ...
. Food was often stored in a buttery separate from the main house, which was designed to keep food cool. This was achieved by keeping the actual storage room raised above the ground, typically five or six steps worth of height, and using a pointed roof, enabling
convective heat transfer
Convection (or convective heat transfer) is the transfer of heat from one place to another due to the movement of fluid. Although often discussed as a distinct method of heat transfer, convective heat transfer involves the combined processes o ...
to keep warm air from the food. Kitchens were also distinctive, occasionally placed in out-buildings or in basements and noted for the use of wide, raised chimneys possibly inspired by the open
hearth.
[Raine, p. 22]
![Town of St](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/79/Town_of_St._George%27s_and_Warwick_Fort_in_Bermuda_%281614%29.png)
The earliest roofing was made of
palmetto thatch but, partially from encouragement from the colonial government,
[Raine, p. 14] stone shingles slowly came to be preferred. By 1687, only 29 of the 579 houses in Bermuda had been upgraded to stone and only 63 were shingled.
[Chudleigh, Diana. ''Bermuda Architectural Heritage Series: Smith's Parish'' (]Bermuda National Trust
The Bermuda National Trust is a charitable organization which works to preserve and protect the heritage of Bermuda.
According to its website, the organization has the following purposes:
"The Bermuda National Trust is a charity, establishe ...
: 2005).
The buildings were originally quite plain, due to the brittleness of limestone and lingering
Puritanical
The Puritans were English Protestants in the 16th and 17th centuries who sought to purify the Church of England of Roman Catholic practices, maintaining that the Church of England had not been fully reformed and should become more Protestant. ...
asceticism. Only two means of decor have been observed in 17th century buildings: "Eyebrow Windows" and
gable-ends. The former may have been inspired by the
Gothic architecture
Gothic architecture (or pointed architecture) is an architectural style that was prevalent in Europe from the late 12th to the 16th century, during the High and Late Middle Ages, surviving into the 17th and 18th centuries in some areas. It ...
of churches.
[Raine, p. 24] By the start of the 18th century, the latter, inspired by contemporary
Stuart architecture and demonstrating resistance to hurricane damage when buttressed by a chimney,
[Trimingham, Michael. ''Bermuda Architectural Heritage Series: St. George's'' (]Bermuda National Trust
The Bermuda National Trust is a charitable organization which works to preserve and protect the heritage of Bermuda.
According to its website, the organization has the following purposes:
"The Bermuda National Trust is a charity, establishe ...
: 1998) p. 35 had splintered into three distinct styles: stepped, bowed and scalloped, with evident similarities to Spanish and Portuguese colonial architecture.
Owing to the lack of water sources on the island, roofs were and are still used for
rainwater collection. Early water tanks were placed not underground, but in adjacent stone structures later likened by one American observer to a
lean-to
A lean-to is a type of simple structure originally added to an existing building with the rafters "leaning" against another wall. Free-standing lean-to structures are generally used as shelters. One traditional type of lean-to is known by its Finn ...
. These tanks were fed via a stone gutter from the roof.
Sunk six to eight feet down, they were typically rectangular and appeared barrel-vaulted above the surface.
A distinctive style of developed, with a stepped profile of limestone slabs,
grouted to make it impermeable and to stay clean. Rain on such a roof is slowed by the steps, rather than sloping tiles, and is collected by the gutter. This dependence on harvester rain led to a culture of water conservation, even with today's
desalination plant
Desalination is a process that takes away mineral components from saline water. More generally, desalination refers to the removal of salts and minerals from a target substance, as in soil desalination, which is an issue for agriculture. Saltw ...
s.
Interior wooden elements such as the ceiling and floors would be made of wood, often
pine
A pine is any conifer tree or shrub in the genus ''Pinus'' () of the family Pinaceae. ''Pinus'' is the sole genus in the subfamily Pinoideae. The World Flora Online created by the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew and Missouri Botanical Garden accepts ...
or
hemlock from the
continent
A continent is any of several large landmasses. Generally identified by convention rather than any strict criteria, up to seven geographical regions
In geography, regions, otherwise referred to as zones, lands or territories, are areas t ...
.
Middle period (1700–1900)
![Bermuda-Stewart Hall](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/3d/Bermuda-Stewart_Hall.jpg)
Into the 18th century, the settlement in Bermuda, and thus the architecture of Bermuda, had been developing for a century. In 1712 and 1714, two particularly bad hurricane strikes showcased the need for the resilient local structures in lieu of European designs, thus ensuring that local architecture would continue to progress.
[Campbell, Colin. "Wooden Houses", Dale Butler, JP MP, ''The Wooden Houses of Bermuda'' (Atlantic Publishing: Florida 2006)]
Georgian architecture, at least in the British sense, did not catch on in Bermuda,
[Raine, p. 39] though the contemporary local style did resemble the
"colonial Georgian" of North America.
[Bandon, Alexandra and Amy Hughes.]
"The Family Plan: The Georgian Style"
''This Old House'', p. 2 During the 18th century embellishing buildings with decoration and adopting elements from
Chinese
Chinese can refer to:
* Something related to China
* Chinese people, people of Chinese nationality, citizenship, and/or ethnicity
**''Zhonghua minzu'', the supra-ethnic concept of the Chinese nation
** List of ethnic groups in China, people of ...
and
Neo-Classical architecture
Neoclassical architecture is an architectural style produced by the Neoclassical movement that began in the mid-18th century in Italy and France. It became one of the most prominent architectural styles in the Western world. The prevailing style ...
became common.
Finials
A finial (from '' la, finis'', end) or hip-knob is an element marking the top or end of some object, often formed to be a decorative feature.
In architecture, it is a small decorative device, employed to emphasize the apex of a dome, spire, towe ...
, a
chinoiserie
(, ; loanword from French '' chinoiserie'', from '' chinois'', "Chinese"; ) is the European interpretation and imitation of Chinese and other East Asian artistic traditions, especially in the decorative arts, garden design, architecture, lite ...
fad in both Europe and North America, appeared on gable-ends and buttery pinnacles.
While the original, ten-to-fifty inch Chinese finials were elaborate designs of
porcelain
Porcelain () is a ceramic material made by heating substances, generally including materials such as kaolinite, in a kiln to temperatures between . The strength and translucence of porcelain, relative to other types of pottery, arises main ...
glazed yellow, green, red, blue, orange and buff, those in Bermuda, made of brittle local limestone, remained stone-coloured and rarely exceeded fifteen inches (381 mm). Another Chinese architectural import was the now-iconic
Moongate. Again, the Bermudian version was made of limestone and, unlike the Asian originals, not sunken into walls.
Stone pillars came into vogue, adorning driveway entrances. Square, instead of the cylindrical of their Neo-Classical inspiration, these pillars were crowned with
capitals of heterodox stone slabs stacked on top of each other to give a geometric pattern. While
eaves in the West Indies tended to be made large enough to provide shade, those in Bermuda were kept shallow — less than a foot — to reduce damage from
hurricane
A tropical cyclone is a rapidly rotating storm system characterized by a low-pressure center, a closed low-level atmospheric circulation, strong winds, and a spiral arrangement of thunderstorms that produce heavy rain and squalls. Depend ...
wind, which could push against larger eaves and lift the roof off.
Jack-rafters, also known as rafter-feet, were toyed with as decoration.
[Raine, p. 40] They were left exposed, similar to
corbels, and painted a colour that contrasted with the roof and walls.
[Raine, p. 41]
Internally, well-steeped
tray ceilings replaced the open-beamed
Tudor style
Tudor Revival architecture (also known as mock Tudor in the UK) first manifested itself in domestic architecture in the United Kingdom in the latter half of the 19th century. Based on revival of aspects that were perceived as Tudor architecture ...
. Above this, the roofs changed considerably. The
hip roof
A hip roof, hip-roof or hipped roof, is a type of roof where all sides slope downwards to the walls, usually with a fairly gentle slope (although a tented roof by definition is a hipped roof with steeply pitched slopes rising to a peak). Thus, ...
, shallower than its predecessors, was adopted,
[Jarvis, ''St. George's'', p. 72] and roofing slates of thin, handcut limestone slabs replaced shingles. These slates were slightly over an inch thick, and ten to twelve inches (305 mm) long; laid over a cedar frame in an overlapping pattern, they gave a down-stepped appearance. Finally, the roofs were coated with a mixture of lime, sand and water and, when available, turtle and
whale oil
Whale oil is oil obtained from the blubber of whales. Whale oil from the bowhead whale was sometimes known as train oil, which comes from the Dutch word ''traan'' (" tear" or "drop").
Sperm oil, a special kind of oil obtained from the head ...
to provide extra weather-proofing. Apart from the animal oil, this method of roof construction continues to be used. The walls, likewise, were often
whitewash
Whitewash, or calcimine, kalsomine, calsomine, or lime paint is a type of paint made from slaked lime (calcium hydroxide, Ca(OH)2) or chalk calcium carbonate, (CaCO3), sometimes known as "whiting". Various other additives are sometimes used.
...
ed, giving the island a faux snowcover if seen from a distance, though American author
Mark Twain preferred to liken it to
cake icing, "the white of marble...modest and retiring
n comparison.
French botanist
André Michaux
André Michaux, also styled Andrew Michaud, (8 March 174611 October 1802) was a French botanist and explorer. He is most noted for his study of North American flora. In addition Michaux collected specimens in England, Spain, France, and even Per ...
, on the other hand, found the reflective glare of the roofs fatiguing.
[Shorto, Sylvia. ''Bermuda Gardens & Houses'' (Rizzoli: New York 1996), p. 36] A common alternative to the whitewash was a simple
lime plaster
Lime plaster is a type of plaster composed of sand, water, and lime, usually non-hydraulic hydrated lime (also known as slaked lime, high calcium lime or air lime). Ancient lime plaster often contained horse hair for reinforcement and pozzolan ...
made — much like the wash — of lime, red clay and turtle or whale oil. If well-maintained, this plaster kept walls free of moisture, but if cracked, moisture would be retained.
[Trimingham, p. 25]
As the water available for domestic use was obtained via the roof, the only way to expand the amount available was to expand the house laterally. Rooms were added to the existing block, first giving buildings a
cruciform
Cruciform is a term for physical manifestations resembling a common cross or Christian cross. The label can be extended to architectural shapes, biology, art, and design.
Cruciform architectural plan
Christian churches are commonly describe ...
appearance and later leaving no standard floor plan for the archetypical house.
By 1711, propertied Bermudians often lived in houses of three to six rooms, the central of which was called the "hall"; this "hall" served as the principle sitting and formal dining room. Porches were often closed in with stone walls and window rather than being open-air.
Common rooms included the "parlour", a bedroom, two or three "bedchambers", an "entry" distinct from the porch and a peripheral "outlet" room often at the back of the house.
[Chudleigh, p. 2]
Archways came to be featured heavily in doorways. Porches, backdoors and even basements featured simple arches, rarely decorated with capitals or
voussoir
A voussoir () is a wedge-shaped element, typically a stone, which is used in building an arch or vault.
Although each unit in an arch or vault is a voussoir, two units are of distinct functional importance: the keystone and the springer. The ...
-style keystones, that show inspiration from both Colonial Mexico and Saxon-Roman styles. These arches continued outward, appearing as garden gateways.
[Raine, p. 42]
The 18th century saw the use of the
casement window adjoined to the
wall plate
A plate or wall plate is a horizontal, structural, load-bearing member in wooden building framing.
Timber framing
A plate in timber framing is "A piece of Timber upon which some considerable weight is framed...Hence Ground-Plate...Window-plat ...
between the wall and rafters. In time, the casement would be replaced by the
sash window, and improved building techniques allowed window- and door-frames to be removed from the wallplate.
[Trimingham, p. 3]
Neo-classical styles, then in vogue in both Britain and America, appeared, particularly among the wealthy.
Porticos with simple limestone
Doric order
The Doric order was one of the three orders of ancient Greek and later Roman architecture; the other two canonical orders were the Ionic and the Corinthian. The Doric is most easily recognized by the simple circular capitals at the top of c ...
pillars topped by comparatively elaborate capitals were built, and upstairs windows were made smaller to recreate Classical optical perspective. The corners of buildings were also adorned with mock columns, and gateways were made more ornate.
[Raine, p. 43] To further accent building geometry, narrow strips of moulding were used to highlight features such as storeys and windows.
[Raine, p. 44]
Garden walls replaced fences that had been erected to keep out animals. These walls were initially low and augmented by fairly tall stone posts, between which
picket fencing was installed. Victorian notions of privacy, however, would see many of these hybrid fences replaced by tall, solid stone walls, particularly in the east.
[White, David. ''Bermuda's Architectural Heritage Series: Sandys'' (Bermuda National Trust: 1999), p. 71] Substantial — often pretentious — gateposts and wooden gates were standard elements.
[Jarvis, ''St. George's'', p. 27] Towards the end of the 18th century,
verandah
A veranda or verandah is a roofed, open-air gallery or porch, attached to the outside of a building. A veranda is often partly enclosed by a railing and frequently extends across the front and sides of the structure.
Although the form ''vera ...
s replaced the built-up porches at the top of the front staircase. First appearing in buildings designed by the British military, the verandahs originated in India and were popular in the West Indies. Initially most used either a plain square
baluster or a "
Chinese Chippendale" style, increasingly elaborate forms took precedence during the
Victorian era
In the history of the United Kingdom and the British Empire, the Victorian era was the period of Queen Victoria's reign, from 20 June 1837 until her death on 22 January 1901. The era followed the Georgian period and preceded the Edwardia ...
.
[Trimingham, p. 68]
![Bda custom house](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a4/Bda_custom_house.JPG)
During the 19th century, the earlier design features were refined and softened. Gable-ends (now strengthened by concrete and making a fashionable comeback),
pillars and gateways were rounded while capitals became standard for porch pillars. The mock columns on the corners of buildings were replaced with
quoins
Quoins ( or ) are masonry blocks at the corner of a wall. Some are structural, providing strength for a wall made with inferior stone or rubble, while others merely add aesthetic detail to a corner. According to one 19th century encyclopedia, t ...
, also called "quoinces" and "longs and shorts", that alternated between being
Headers or Stretchers. This style seems to have its origins in
Anglo-Saxon England.
[Raine, p. 58]
Porches had been in decline since the second half of the 18th century, and by the early 19th century the inner
entryway
A lobby is a room in a building used for entry from the outside. Sometimes referred to as a foyer, reception area or an entrance hall, it is often a large room or complex of rooms (in a theatre, opera house, concert hall, showroom, cinema, etc. ...
was also disappearing in favour of a direct entrance to the central hall.
[Chudleigh, p. 5]
During the 1880s, Bermuda followed Britain in adopting the use of imported, clay-baked tiles for building decoration. Few examples of this, however, have survived.
[Raine, p. 59] Another British import was the
Gothic revival in Bermuda's Anglican community. Seen most prominently in the cathedral in Hamilton, many of the islands' churches were redesigned with more elaborate edifices.
[Chudleigh, p. 7]
Modern developments (1900–present)
![Front Street Hamilton Bermuda](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d8/Front_Street_Hamilton_Bermuda.jpg)
During the 20th century, expanded contact with the outside world has led to a considerable diversification of Bermuda's architecture, more so with commercial developments than residential, to the detriment of traditional styles. Concern for the loss of Bermudian identity led to the 1937 creation of the
Bermuda Historical Monuments Trust, predecessor to the present-day
Bermuda National Trust
The Bermuda National Trust is a charitable organization which works to preserve and protect the heritage of Bermuda.
According to its website, the organization has the following purposes:
"The Bermuda National Trust is a charity, establishe ...
, to purchase and preserve important examples of indigenous architecture.
[Chudleigh, p. 12] Initially, though, earlier styles made a resurgence, as did the Colonial Spanish arch.
[Raine, p. 77] The
Edwardian period
The Edwardian era or Edwardian period of British history spanned the reign of King Edward VII, 1901 to 1910 and is sometimes extended to the start of the First World War. The death of Queen Victoria in January 1901 marked the end of the Victori ...
saw the introduction of hybrid British-American
bungalows
A bungalow is a small house or cottage that is either single-story or has a second story built into a sloping roof (usually with dormer windows), and may be surrounded by wide verandas.
The first house in England that was classified as a b ...
marketed to the middle class; features included exposed eaves, windows gathered together and low roofs that were extended to cover porches.
[Chudleigh, p. 10]
The early century also saw the perhaps counterintuitive growth of wooden buildings. Often these buildings were to provide cheap housing for imported labour, such as from the West Indies in the 1900s and 1930s, or during the Second World War for the builders of
Kindley Air Force Base
Kindley Air Force Base was a United States Air Force base in Bermuda from 1948–1970, having been operated from 1943 to 1948 by the United States Army Air Forces as ''Kindley Field''.
History
World War II
Prior to American entry into th ...
. Such designs were usually looked down up: the wooden neighbourhood on King's Point was described as a shanty town. Wooden buildings became most prolific in Sandys parish, near to the
Royal Naval Dockyard, followed by St. George's near the Kindley Field (used to house not only labourers but displaced residents) and finally Pembroke.
[Butler, Dale. ''The Wooden Houses of Bermuda'', p. iv] In the subsequent decades, many of these wooden buildings would be demolished.
[Butler, p. v]
Pre-fabricated buildings, often imported from the United States appeared early. Typically, they have been used as temporary, low-cost residences. Prior to the outbreak of the Second World War, Cox Outerbridge imported wooden pre-fabricated buildings and created an affordable community on his estate in
Pembroke.
As recently as 2005, the government of Bermuda has imported pre-fabricated buildings in a somewhat controversial attempt to address the country's housing crisis.
[Roberts, Stuart]
"UBP blasts pre-fab home plan"
''The Royal Gazette'', August 17, 2005. The need for these alternatives is quite clear: by 2004, the cost of traditional construction was over
$175 per square foot, combined with land prices of $1 million per acre.
["Supply and demand"]
''The Royal Gazette'', February 25, 2004 By the beginning of 2007, this left the average cost of a house at over $1.5 million,
[Kent, Jonathan. "Average cost of houses hits $1.6m", ''The Royal Gazette'', January 10, 2007] and approaching $2 million by August of that year.
[Ebbin, Meredith.]
"Average family home now $1.8m"
''Bermuda Sun'', August 2, 2007 By late 2008, construction costs had reached $250 per square foot.
[Dale, Amanda.]
"Damaged 200-year-old landmark demolished despite objections"
''The Royal Gazette'', November 8, 2008
![City Hall in Hamilton, Bermuda](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/2e/City_Hall_in_Hamilton%2C_Bermuda.jpg)
In 1933, a large sum of money was
bequeathed
A bequest is property given by will. Historically, the term ''bequest'' was used for personal property given by will and ''deviser'' for real property. Today, the two words are used interchangeably.
The word ''bequeath'' is a verb form for the ...
to the city of Hamilton for the construction of a new city hall. The new structure, begun in the late 1950s and finished in 1960, was designed by Bermudian architect
Wil Onions to copy styles from the traditional Bermuda cottage.
[City Hall]
, The Corporation of Hamilton Onions been demonstrating his skills at marrying modern needs with traditional decor for many years,
[Jarvis, p. 153] and his work inspired a revitalised interest in traditional architecture.
[White, p. 97]
Modern civil architecture appeared in Bermuda in the 1960s, though it has been mostly limited to the city of Hamilton and its immediate outskirts. Generally used for private commercial purposes, the overseas styles began to take over the Hamilton skyline as international business grew, restricted only by a government mandate that no building be taller than the city's Cathedral.
[Shorto, p. 29]
In 2000, the Town of St. George and the east-end fortifications were nominated for inclusion on
UNESCO's list of
World Heritage Sites
A World Heritage Site is a landmark or area with legal protection by an international convention administered by the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO). World Heritage Sites are designated by UNESCO for ...
, under the grounds of architecture that illustrates human history (criterion iv) and direct association with events and traditions (criterion vi). During the selection process, the delegate from
Mexico
Mexico (Spanish: México), officially the United Mexican States, is a country in the southern portion of North America. It is bordered to the north by the United States; to the south and west by the Pacific Ocean; to the southeast by Guatema ...
questioned why the site was not part of a serial nomination of Caribbean fortifications (considered by the
United Nations
The United Nations (UN) is an intergovernmental organization whose stated purposes are to maintain international peace and security, develop friendly relations among nations, achieve international cooperation, and be a centre for harmoniz ...
to be part of a different region,
Latin America
Latin America or
* french: Amérique Latine, link=no
* ht, Amerik Latin, link=no
* pt, América Latina, link=no, name=a, sometimes referred to as LatAm is a large cultural region in the Americas where Romance languages — languages derived f ...
, from Bermuda,
Northern America
Northern America is the northernmost subregion of North America. The boundaries may be drawn slightly differently. In one definition, it lies directly north of Middle America (including the Caribbean and Central America).Gonzalez, Joseph. 2 ...
, per the
United Nations geoscheme
The United Nations geoscheme is a system which divides 249 countries and territories in the world into six regional, 17 subregional, and nine intermediate regional groups. It was devised by the United Nations Statistics Division (UNSD) based ...
)
[World Macro Regions and Components]
United Nations
The United Nations (UN) is an intergovernmental organization whose stated purposes are to maintain international peace and security, develop friendly relations among nations, achieve international cooperation, and be a centre for harmoniz ...
and the delegate from
Thailand
Thailand ( ), historically known as Siam () and officially the Kingdom of Thailand, is a country in Southeast Asia, located at the centre of the Indochinese Peninsula, spanning , with a population of almost 70 million. The country is b ...
questioned why
ICOMOS
The International Council on Monuments and Sites (ICOMOS; french: links=no, Conseil international des monuments et des sites) is a professional association that works for the conservation and protection of cultural heritage places around the worl ...
wanted to apply criterion vi; it was decided to inscribe the site on the World Heritage List under criterion iv only.
[''Report of the 24th session, 27 November - 2 December 2000'']
UNESCO
The United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization is a specialized agency of the United Nations (UN) aimed at promoting world peace and security through international cooperation in education, arts, sciences and culture. It ...
![Postcard Bermuda 1907 picture](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/ec/Postcard_Bermuda_1907_picture.jpg)
In 2004, the renovation of "Harbour View" in St. George's was followed by the American home improvement franchise ''
This Old House
''This Old House'' is an American home improvement media brand with television shows, a magazine, and a websiteThisOldHouse.com. The brand is headquartered in Stamford, Connecticut. The television series airs on the American television netw ...
''. The coverage was featured in four issues of the ''This Old House'' magazine and eight episodes of its television series, ''Ask This Old House''. It was only the second time that the program had ventured outside of the United States.
[Trott, Lawrence]
"This unique opportunity"
''The Royal Gazette'', February 24, 2004.[Trott, Lawrence]
"First 'Old House' segment on Bermuda to debut tonight"
"The Royal Gazette", March 4, 2004 The renovation was designed by a local architect, Colin Campbell, and largely performed by local companies.
[Bandon, Alexandra.]
''This Old House''
Most recently, focus on
sustainable development has led to experiments in
green architecture
Sustainable architecture is architecture that seeks to minimize the negative environmental impact of buildings through improved efficiency and moderation in the use of materials, energy, development space and the ecosystem at large. Sustainable ...
. In late 2008, the country's first
LEED-accredited building was completed in Hamilton,
["Making buildings in Bermuda greener"]
''The Royal Gazette'', December 17, 2007[Wright, Alex.]
"Businesses set to move into 'green building' from next month"
''The Royal Gazette'', October 31, 2008 but the adoption of green technologies such as
solar panels has been extremely slow.
[Pearman, Mikaela Ian.]
"Expert 'astounded' we don't use much solar power"
''The Royal Gazette'', November 12, 2008
Military construction
![John Smith 1624 map of Bermuda with Forts 01](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/85/John_Smith_1624_map_of_Bermuda_with_Forts_01.jpg)
Local and
British
British may refer to:
Peoples, culture, and language
* British people, nationals or natives of the United Kingdom, British Overseas Territories, and Crown Dependencies.
** Britishness, the British identity and common culture
* British English, ...
needs for military development long drove Bermuda's construction industry. During the
age of colonisation, risk of attack by the
Spanish
Spanish might refer to:
* Items from or related to Spain:
**Spaniards are a nation and ethnic group indigenous to Spain
**Spanish language, spoken in Spain and many Latin American countries
**Spanish cuisine
Other places
* Spanish, Ontario, Can ...
,
French and
Dutch
Dutch commonly refers to:
* Something of, from, or related to the Netherlands
* Dutch people ()
* Dutch language ()
Dutch may also refer to:
Places
* Dutch, West Virginia, a community in the United States
* Pennsylvania Dutch Country
People E ...
led to a ring of wooden fortifications being built along the coastline. The first forts, Paget Fort and Smith's Fort, were built in 1612 − the first year of colonisation – to protect St. George's Harbour. These first forts were built simply, starting out as platforms cut into stone where cannons were then placed. They were then haphazardly expanded to the point where they could not withstand the elements and collapsed.
[Jarvis, ''St. George's'', p. 13.] Fortification was slowly expanded to guard the entrance of
Castle Harbour, in time to fend off a Spanish expedition in 1614. King's Castle was raised that same year, but subsequent attempts to improve the fort were unsuccessful; six years later, Southampton Fort and the Devonshire
Redoubt
A redoubt (historically redout) is a fort or fort system usually consisting of an enclosed defensive emplacement outside a larger fort, usually relying on earthworks, although some are constructed of stone or brick. It is meant to protect soldi ...
were added to
Castle Harbour's defence.
[Jarvis, ''St. George's'', p. 14]
By the 18th century few wooden forts — indeed, few of the original structures — remained. The ring alternated between high towers and squat, hexagonal or square forts. The eastern part of the archipelago was particularly well-fortified.
[Raine, p. 24] King's Castle continued to be expanded, with an underground magazine and an outhouse cut of the stone that strongly resembles a local buttery.
[Jarvis, ''St. George's'', p. 15] A total of twenty forts — nearly one for each of Bermuda's square miles — would be erected by 1800, most of them to guard St. Georges. By 1783, over half of the colony's cannons ringed the eastern parish. These forts did not follow the conventional
bastion-style that then prevailed in Europe; instead they most resembled the fortifications built under
Henry VIII along the coast of
southern England
Southern England, or the South of England, also known as the South, is an area of England consisting of its southernmost part, with cultural, economic and political differences from the Midlands and the North. Officially, the area includes ...
in the early 16th century.
[Jarvis, ''St. George's'', p. 16]
![Storehouse HMD Bermuda](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e2/Storehouse_HMD_Bermuda.jpg)
During and following the
American War for Independence
The American Revolutionary War (April 19, 1775 – September 3, 1783), also known as the Revolutionary War or American War of Independence, was a major war of the American Revolution. Widely considered as the war that secured the independence of t ...
, the British began to use the island as a major naval outpost. The most notable construction of this period was the
Royal Naval Dockyard. The site surveyed in 1796, construction began in 1812 without regard to the local architectural developments. Instead, it was built with conventional methods using brick and slate imported from
Great Britain
Great Britain is an island in the North Atlantic Ocean off the northwest coast of continental Europe. With an area of , it is the largest of the British Isles, the largest European island and the ninth-largest island in the world. It i ...
and
Canada
Canada is a country in North America. Its ten provinces and three territories extend from the Atlantic Ocean to the Pacific Ocean and northward into the Arctic Ocean, covering over , making it the world's second-largest country by tot ...
. Construction of the Dockyard continued until the 1860s and relied heavily on
penal labour, using prisoners from Britain housed in
floating hulks. Construction resumed at the end of the 19th century and was done by imported West Indian workers. One of the most prominent buildings of the Dockyard was the Commissioner's House, designed by the Royal Navy's chief architect
Edward Holl. At ,
[Facility Rentals]
, Bermuda Maritime Museum
The National Museum of Bermuda, previously the Bermuda Maritime Museum from its opening in 1974 until 2009 (legislatively formalised in 2013), explores the maritime and island history of Bermuda. The maritime museum is located within the grounds ...
the verandah-wrapped building was far larger and grander than either the Government House, residence of Bermuda's governor, or the Admiralty House used by the head of the
North American Station
The North America and West Indies Station was a formation or command of the United Kingdom's Royal Navy stationed in North American waters from 1745 to 1956. The North American Station was separate from the Jamaica Station until 1830 when the ...
.
[White, p. 108] The Commissioner's House introduced the use of
cast iron in buildings and was built largely using
prison labour.
[White, p. 109] Internally, the building featured
Soane styling,
flushing toilets and
hot water
Water heating is a heat transfer process that uses an energy source to heat water above its initial temperature. Typical domestic uses of hot water include cooking, cleaning, bathing, and space heating. In industry, hot water and water heated t ...
. By the time the building was finished in 1832, the final cost was nearly £50,000 ($250,000); the
Navy Board
The Navy Board (formerly known as the Council of the Marine or Council of the Marine Causes) was the commission responsible for the day-to-day civil administration of the Royal Navy between 1546 and 1832. The board was headquartered within the ...
was outraged, and the building came to be regarded as a
white elephant
A white elephant is a possession that its owner cannot dispose of, and whose cost, particularly that of maintenance, is out of proportion to its usefulness. In modern usage, it is a metaphor used to describe an object, construction project, sch ...
.
[White, p. 110] The building was subsequently used as barracks by the
British Army
The British Army is the principal land warfare force of the United Kingdom, a part of the British Armed Forces along with the Royal Navy and the Royal Air Force. , the British Army comprises 79,380 regular full-time personnel, 4,090 Gurk ...
and the
Royal Marines until its commissioning by the
Royal Navy
The Royal Navy (RN) is the United Kingdom's naval warfare force. Although warships were used by English and Scottish kings from the early medieval period, the first major maritime engagements were fought in the Hundred Years' War against ...
as during the
First World War
World War I (28 July 1914 11 November 1918), often abbreviated as WWI, was one of the deadliest global conflicts in history. Belligerents included much of Europe, the Russian Empire, the United States, and the Ottoman Empire, with fightin ...
.
[White, p. 111]
![BermudaDockyard](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b7/BermudaDockyard.jpg)
Other military construction also followed the traditional British patterns, and had negligible effect on local architecture. Through the 19th century, the British military continued to construct and expand fortifications and lay roads and bridges, most notably
the causeway
The Causeway is an arterial traffic crossing in Perth, Western Australia, linking the inner-city suburbs of East Perth and Victoria Park. It is carried over the Swan River at the eastern end of Perth Water by two bridges on either side of ...
connecting
Long Bird Island and
St. David's Island to the main island.
[Raine, p. 57] St. George's was also re-fortified by the
Royal Engineers. New or replacement forts included Upper Paget Fort/Fort Cunningham, built above the remains of the first Paget Fort, Fort Victoria and Fort Albert to the east and
Fort St. Catherine, on the northern tip of St. George's.
[Jarvis, ''St. George's'', p. 120] St. George's also saw the construction of Fort George and Fort William as well as seaward
artillery batteries
In military organizations, an artillery battery is a unit or multiple systems of artillery, mortar systems, rocket artillery, multiple rocket launchers, surface-to-surface missiles, ballistic missiles, cruise missiles, etc., so grouped to facil ...
at Buildings Bay and on St. David's Island.
[Jarvis, ''St. George's'', p. 121] In the 1820s, Bermuda's only
Martello tower
Martello towers, sometimes known simply as Martellos, are small defensive forts that were built across the British Empire during the 19th century, from the time of the French Revolutionary Wars onwards. Most were coastal forts.
They stand u ...
was built to cover
Ferry Reach
Ferry Reach is a three mile (five kilometre) long channel in the north-east of Bermuda, which lies between St. George's Island in the north and St. David's Island in the south south-west of the town of St. George's.
It extends south from St. G ...
.
[Jarvis, ''St. George's'', p. 128]
In the aftermath of the
American Civil War
The American Civil War (April 12, 1861 – May 26, 1865; also known by other names) was a civil war in the United States. It was fought between the Union ("the North") and the Confederacy ("the South"), the latter formed by states ...
, concerns over a landward attack on the Royal Naval Dockyard led to large tracts of the central parish of Devonshire being
acquired by the British military.
[Trimingham, p. 10] Fort Prospect and Fort Langton, both built to an out-dated design, and the Military Hospital were constructed in the area, and local houses were used as officers' residences.
[Trimingham, p. 11]
Not all of the British military buildings were fortifications, of course. Barracks, hospitals and officer houses were built to British military standard, which fared poorly in Bermuda. Verandahs were often supported by iron columns that required constant painting, while roofs were lined with
Welsh slate
The existence of a slate industry in Wales is attested since the Roman period, when slate was used to roof the fort at Segontium, now Caernarfon. The slate industry grew slowly until the early 18th century, then expanded rapidly until the l ...
that was lost after every hurricane. Though a few pretentious copycats still appeared among Bermuda's residences, around the start of the 20th century even the military was abandoning the style in favour of local techniques.
[Jarvis, ''St. George's'', p. 133]
One of the largest and perhaps most traumatic military developments was the construction of
Kindley Air Force Base
Kindley Air Force Base was a United States Air Force base in Bermuda from 1948–1970, having been operated from 1943 to 1948 by the United States Army Air Forces as ''Kindley Field''.
History
World War II
Prior to American entry into th ...
by the
United States
The United States of America (U.S.A. or USA), commonly known as the United States (U.S. or US) or America, is a country primarily located in North America. It consists of 50 states, a federal district, five major unincorporated territori ...
. Seizing large areas of the eastern islands, many traditional houses were demolished and replaced by American-style buildings. The new buildings were given some superfluous local traits, such as white roofs and coloured walls, but otherwise inherited nothing from local design. As with the earlier British works, there was no lasting influence of these buildings on local architecture.
[Raine, p. 78]
Notable structures
St. George's (town and parish)
![Bermuda-Harbour and Town of St George](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/3a/Bermuda-Harbour_and_Town_of_St_George.jpg)
*The
State House, built in an Italian style, once housed Bermuda's Parliament; since 1797 it has been rented by a
Masonic Lodge
A Masonic lodge, often termed a private lodge or constituent lodge, is the basic organisational unit of Freemasonry. It is also commonly used as a term for a building in which such a unit meets. Every new lodge must be warranted or chartered ...
at the rate of one peppercorn per year, which is collected by the governor in a small ceremony (''see:
peppercorn (legal)
In legal parlance, a peppercorn is a metaphor for a very small cash payment or other nominal consideration, used to satisfy the requirements for the creation of a legal contract. It is featured in '' Chappell & Co Ltd v Nestle Co Ltd'' ( 960AC 87 ...
'').
*The Old Rectory, built in 1699 by failed
privateer
A privateer is a private person or ship that engages in maritime warfare under a commission of war. Since robbery under arms was a common aspect of seaborne trade, until the early 19th century all merchant ships carried arms. A sovereign or deleg ...
and
slave trader
The history of slavery spans many cultures, nationalities, and religions from ancient times to the present day. Likewise, its victims have come from many different ethnicities and religious groups. The social, economic, and legal positions of e ...
George Dew, is one of Bermuda's oldest houses.
[The Old Rectory]
''Museums & Historic Buildings'', Bermuda National Trust
The Bermuda National Trust is a charitable organization which works to preserve and protect the heritage of Bermuda.
According to its website, the organization has the following purposes:
"The Bermuda National Trust is a charity, establishe ...
[Jarvis, p. 59]
*The Globe Hotel, built c. 1700 by Governor of Bermuda, Governor Samuel Day (governor), Samuel Day, is one of Bermuda's oldest stone buildings. Day used public funds to construct the building as his personal home, which he kept after being ousted from office. In 1951 it was purchased by the Bermuda Historical Monuments Trust and converted into a museum about Bermuda's role during the
American Civil War
The American Civil War (April 12, 1861 – May 26, 1865; also known by other names) was a civil war in the United States. It was fought between the Union ("the North") and the Confederacy ("the South"), the latter formed by states ...
.
[Jarvis, p. 62][The Bermuda National Trust Museum at the Globe Hotel]
''Museums & Historic Buildings'', Bermuda National Trust
The Bermuda National Trust is a charitable organization which works to preserve and protect the heritage of Bermuda.
According to its website, the organization has the following purposes:
"The Bermuda National Trust is a charity, establishe ...
*St. Peter's Church, St. George's, St. Peter's Church was the last in a succession of churches at the site; built in 1713 and extensively renovated in the 19th century.
St. Peter's Church
, ''Walking Tour'', The St. George's Foundation[Jarvis, p. 28]
*Fort St. Catherine was built in the 1830s at the northern tip of the archipelago; now part of the World Heritage Site, it houses a museum.
*The Unfinished Church was begun in 1874 as a Gothic Revival replacement for St. Peter's Church; financial difficulties and storm damage led to the project being abandoned and the site left to ruin.
''Museums & Historic Buildings'', Bermuda National Trust
The Bermuda National Trust is a charitable organization which works to preserve and protect the heritage of Bermuda.
According to its website, the organization has the following purposes:
"The Bermuda National Trust is a charity, establishe ...
[Jarvis, p. 33]
*Arcadia House, a Grade One-listed building built in 1900 and used as officers' housing.[White, p. 125] It was demolished in 2008.
Elsewhere
*Verdmont, in Smith's Parish, Bermuda, Smith's, a mansion built in 1710 now run as a museum by the Bermuda National Trust, which has changed little in the past three centuries.[Moniz, Jessie. "Celebrating Bermuda's history", ''The Royal Gazette'', April 14, 2005.][''Smith's Parish'']
*The Bermuda headquarters of Bacardi, in Hamilton, Bermuda, Hamilton, follows an International style (architecture), International style design by Ludwig Mies van der Rohe, closely resembling his Neue Nationalgalerie, and was declared (presumably humorously) "the most Bermudian of all Bermudian buildings" by its builders.
*The Cathedral of the Most Holy Trinity was completed in 1894 so that Hamilton could be conferred "city status"; it is by law the tallest building in the city.[''Corporation of Hamilton: Walking Tours with Hamilton Town Crier Ed Christopher'', Corporation of Hamilton]
*The Keep, including the Commissioner's House, is the home of the Bermuda Maritime Museum
The National Museum of Bermuda, previously the Bermuda Maritime Museum from its opening in 1974 until 2009 (legislatively formalised in 2013), explores the maritime and island history of Bermuda. The maritime museum is located within the grounds ...
;[Map#The Keep]
, Bermuda Maritime Museum other buildings at Royal Naval Dockyard, Bermuda, the Dockyard on Ireland Island, Bermuda, Ireland Island remain standing but have been converted for commercial purposes.[Dockyard]
West End Development Co.
Gallery
File:State House- 1620 - St Geo - Bermuda.jpg, A street in the Town of St. George leading up to the historic State House.
File:St. Peter's Church -1.jpg, St. Peter's Church in St. George.
File:Unfinished Church 2.jpg, The Unfinished Church in St. George, begun in 1874.
File:HM Dockyard Bermuda 04.jpg, Commissioner's House, atop "The Keep", is completely exposed to both the elements and any military threats.
File:Bermuda-Flatts_Village_01.jpg, Buildings in Flatts Village, Bermuda
File:Bermuda-Flatts_Village_02.jpg, Buildings in Flatts Village
File:BermudaStreetCarriage1929.jpg, A street in Hamilton as it appeared in 1929.
File:HamiltonStreet.jpg, Hamilton's Front Street from street level shows many of the architectural features mentioned in the article.
See also
*Culture of Bermuda
References
Further reading
* John S. Humphreys, ''Bermuda Houses'' (Marshall Jones, Boston, 1923; reprinted Bermuda Maritime Museum, Dockyard, 1993) The standard and magisterial work on Bermuda houses.
* ''Bermuda's Architectural Heritage: Sandys'' (Bermuda National Trust
The Bermuda National Trust is a charitable organization which works to preserve and protect the heritage of Bermuda.
According to its website, the organization has the following purposes:
"The Bermuda National Trust is a charity, establishe ...
, Hamilton, 1999)
* Diana Chudleigh, Edward A. Chappel, Michael J. Jarvis, ''Bermuda's Architectural Heritage: Hamilton Parish'' (Bermuda National Trust, Hamilton, 2002)
* Michael J. Jarvis, ''Bermuda's Architectural Heritage: St. George's'' (Bermuda National Trust, Hamilton, 1998)
* Andrew Trimingham, Robin Judah, et al., ''Bermuda's Architectural Heritage: Volume One - Devonshire'' (Bermuda National Trust, Hamilton, 1995)
* Andrew Trimingham, ''Bermuda's Architectural Heritage: Devonshire'' (Bermuda National Trust, Hamilton, 1995)
{{DEFAULTSORT:Architecture Of Bermuda
Architecture in Bermuda, *
Buildings and structures in Bermuda,
Bermudian culture