Archaeological ethics refers to the
moral
A moral (from Latin ''morālis'') is a message that is conveyed or a lesson to be learned from a story or event. The moral may be left to the hearer, reader, or viewer to determine for themselves, or may be explicitly encapsulated in a maxim. A ...
issues raised through the study of the material past. It is a branch of the
philosophy of archaeology
The philosophy of archaeology seeks to investigate the foundations, methods and implications of the discipline of archaeology in order to further understand the human past and present.
Central questions include what is archaeology? What is the the ...
. This article will touch on human remains, the preservation and laws protecting remains and cultural items, issues around the globe, as well as preservation and ethnoarchaeology.
Archaeologists are bound to conduct their investigations to a high standard and observe intellectual property laws, health and safety regulations, and other legal obligations.
Archaeologists in the field are required to work towards the preservation and management of archaeological resources, treat human remains with dignity and respect, and encourage
outreach
Outreach is the activity of providing services to any population that might not otherwise have access to those services. A key component of outreach is that the group providing it is not stationary, but mobile; in other words, it involves meetin ...
activities. Sanctions are in place for those professionals who do not observe these ethical codes. Questions regarding archaeological ethics first began to arise during the 1960s and 1970s in North America and Western Europe.
A
UNESCO
The United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization is a specialized agency of the United Nations (UN) aimed at promoting world peace and security through international cooperation in education, arts, sciences and culture. It ...
ratification to protect world culture in 1970 was one of the earliest actions to implement ethical standards.
Archaeologists conducting
ethnoarchaeological research, which involves the study of living people, are required to follow guidelines set by the
Nuremberg Code
The Nuremberg Code (german: Nürnberger Kodex) is a set of ethical research principles for human experimentation created by the court in '' U.S. v Brandt'', one of the Subsequent Nuremberg trials that were held after the Second World War.
Tho ...
(1947) and the
Declaration of Helsinki
The Declaration of Helsinki (DoH, fi, Helsingin julistus, sv, Helsingforsdeklarationen) is a set of ethical principles regarding human experimentation developed originally in 1964 for the medical community by the World Medical Association (WMA) ...
(1964).
History of ethics in archaeology
The earliest
archaeologists
Archaeology or archeology is the scientific study of human activity through the recovery and analysis of material culture. The archaeological record consists of artifacts, architecture, biofacts or ecofacts, sites, and cultural landscap ...
were typically amateurs who would excavate a site with the sole purpose of collecting as many objects as they could for display in museums.
Curiosity about past humans and the potential for finding lucrative and fascinating objects justified what many professional archaeologists today would consider to be unethical archaeological behavior.
A shift toward scientific knowledge prompted many early archaeologists to begin documenting their finds. In 1906, the
Antiquities Act
The Antiquities Act of 1906 (, , ), is an act that was passed by the United States Congress and signed into law by Theodore Roosevelt on June 8, 1906. This law gives the President of the United States the authority to, by presidential procla ...
created as the first act in America to help regulate archaeological discovery.
This act allowed for federal protection of sites from looting but failed to protect native peoples from having their land and ancestral objects seized.
The
Society for American Archaeology
The Society for American Archaeology (SAA) is a professional association for the archaeology of the Americas. It was founded in 1934 and its headquarters are in based in Washington, D.C. , it has 7,500 members. Its current president is Deborah L. ...
was developed in 1934.
This organization helped to bring regulation into the field of
archaeology
Archaeology or archeology is the scientific study of human activity through the recovery and analysis of material culture. The archaeological record consists of artifacts, architecture, biofacts or ecofacts, sites, and cultural landscap ...
and provided consistent training for professional archaeologists.
A series of laws passed in the 1960s and 1970s created the field of
cultural resource management
In the broadest sense, cultural resource management (CRM) is the vocation and practice of managing heritage assets, and other cultural resources such as contemporary art. It incorporates Cultural Heritage Management which is concerned with traditio ...
which protects
archaeological site
An archaeological site is a place (or group of physical sites) in which evidence of past activity is preserved (either prehistoric or historic or contemporary), and which has been, or may be, investigated using the discipline of archaeology an ...
s from encroaching development.
Debates about the rights of native peoples to their ancestral belongings occurred throughout the 1980s culminating in the passing of the
Native American Graves Protection and Repatriation Act
The Native American Graves Protection and Repatriation Act (NAGPRA), Pub. L. 101-601, 25 U.S.C. 3001 et seq., 104 Stat. 3048, is a United States federal law enacted on November 16, 1990.
The Act requires federal agencies and institutions tha ...
.
The rise of ethics in archaeology was spurred by a shift in
archaeological theory
Archaeological theory refers to the various intellectual frameworks through which archaeologists interpret archaeological data. Archaeological theory functions as the application of philosophy of science to archaeology, and is occasionally referre ...
towards
post-processualism
Post-processual archaeology, which is sometimes alternately referred to as the interpretative archaeologies by its adherents, is a movement in archaeological theory that emphasizes the subjectivity of archaeological interpretations. Despite having ...
which focuses on critical evaluation of methods and the implications of archaeology on politics.
Human remains
A common ethical issue in
modern archaeology has been the treatment of human remains found during
excavations, especially those that represent the ancestors of
aboriginal groups in the
New World
The term ''New World'' is often used to mean the majority of Earth's Western Hemisphere, specifically the Americas."America." ''The Oxford Companion to the English Language'' (). McArthur, Tom, ed., 1992. New York: Oxford University Press, p. 3 ...
or the remains of other minority races elsewhere. In November 1990 the Native American Graves Protection and Repatriation Act (
NAGPRA
The Native American Graves Protection and Repatriation Act (NAGPRA), Pub. L. 101-601, 25 U.S.C. 3001 et seq., 104 Stat. 3048, is a United States federal law enacted on November 16, 1990.
The Act requires federal agencies and institutions that ...
) was enacted, facilitating the return of certain human remains and sacred objects to lineal descendants and Native American Tribes. Where previously sites of great significance to indigenous peoples could be excavated and burials and
artifacts taken to be stored in museums or sold, there is now increasing awareness of taking a more respectful approach. Technical developments in ancient DNA testing have raised more ethical questions in relation to the treatment of these human remains. The issue is not limited to indigenous human remains. Nineteenth and twentieth century burial sites investigated by archaeologists, such as
First World War
World War I (28 July 1914 11 November 1918), often abbreviated as WWI, was one of the deadliest global conflicts in history. Belligerents included much of Europe, the Russian Empire, the United States, and the Ottoman Empire, with fightin ...
graves disturbed by developments, have seen the remains of people with closely connected living relatives being exhumed and taken away.
Ethics in commercial archaeology
In the United States, the bulk of modern archaeological work is done under the auspices of development by
cultural resource management
In the broadest sense, cultural resource management (CRM) is the vocation and practice of managing heritage assets, and other cultural resources such as contemporary art. It incorporates Cultural Heritage Management which is concerned with traditio ...
archaeologists in compliance with Section 106
of the
National Historic Preservation Act
The National Historic Preservation Act (NHPA; Public Law 89-665; 54 U.S.C. 300101 ''et seq.'') is legislation intended to preserve historic and archaeological sites in the United States of America. The act created the National Register of Historic ...
. Guidance for compliance with Section 106 is provided by
The Advisory Council on Historic Preservation
''The'' () is a grammatical Article (grammar), article in English language, English, denoting persons or things already mentioned, under discussion, implied or otherwise presumed familiar to listeners, readers, or speakers. It is the definite ...
.
Impacts of nondisclosure agreements
Much of this work is subject to
non-disclosure agreement
A non-disclosure agreement (NDA) is a legal contract or part of a contract between at least two parties that outlines confidential material, knowledge, or information that the parties wish to share with one another for certain purposes, but wish ...
s with private entities. A primary ethical criticism levied against commercial archaeological practices is the prevalence of non-disclosure agreements associated with development projects involving a cultural resource management component.
Critics claim that NDA's are a barrier to public access to the archaeological record and create an unethical working condition for archaeologists to practice and that archaeology applied to the industry of development is itself a threat to the archaeological record.
This practice prohibits information gathered from the archaeological record during such projects from being disseminated to the public or academic institutions for further study and peer review. Scarre writes that “collecting items that are surplus to requirements…is academically pointless and morally irresponsible" and it has been interpreted that data collected as a result of cultural resource management fieldwork unavailable to the public through NDA access restrictions creates such a surplus and therefore is ethically problematic.
Private property and development
The issue of ownership is paramount in the ethical discussion regarding commercial archaeology. In most circumstances, with the exception of human remains and artifacts associated with burials, ownership of artifacts and other material recovered from archaeological investigations performed within the scope of development projects falls to the owner of the property on which the excavation is performed.
Many archaeologists consider this to be ethically problematic and a significant barrier to public access.
Colonization and conflict
The
World Archaeological Congress
The World Archaeological Congress (WAC) is a non-governmental, not-for-profit organization which promotes world archaeology. It is the only global archaeological organisation with elected representation.
Established in 1986, WAC holds an internat ...
has determined that “It is unethical for Professional Archaeologists and academic institutions to conduct professional archaeological work and excavations in occupied areas possessed by force”. This resolution has been interpreted to include not only regions where there is active military conflict but regions who have been in conflict in the past and are currently under
colonial rule
Colonialism is a practice or policy of control by one people or power over other people or areas, often by establishing colony, colonies and generally with the aim of economic dominance. In the process of colonisation, colonisers may impose the ...
,
for example, North and South America
Antiquities trade
![Nubian antiquities at MAHG-IMG 1947](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/bd/Nubian_antiquities_at_MAHG-IMG_1947.JPG)
Although not formally connected with the modern discipline of archaeology, the international trade in
antiquities
Antiquities are objects from antiquity, especially the civilizations of the Mediterranean: the Classical antiquity of Greece and Rome, Ancient Egypt and the other Ancient Near Eastern cultures. Artifacts from earlier periods such as the Meso ...
has also raised ethical questions regarding the ownership of archaeological artifacts. The market for imported antiquities has encouraged damage to archaeological sites and often led to appeals for the recall.
Famous sites such as
Angkor Wat
Angkor Wat (; km, អង្គរវត្ត, "City/Capital of Temples") is a temple complex in Cambodia and is the largest religious monument in the world, on a site measuring . Originally constructed as a Hinduism, Hindu temple dedicated ...
in Cambodia have experienced problems with looting. Looting often leads to loss of information as material remains are removed from their original contexts.
Examples of archaeological material which has been removed from its place of origin and over which there is now controversy regarding its return include the
Elgin Marbles
The Elgin Marbles (), also known as the Parthenon Marbles ( el, Γλυπτά του Παρθενώνα, lit. "sculptures of the Parthenon"), are a collection of Classical Greek marble sculptures made under the supervision of the architect and s ...
.
In the United States, the
Antiquities Act
The Antiquities Act of 1906 (, , ), is an act that was passed by the United States Congress and signed into law by Theodore Roosevelt on June 8, 1906. This law gives the President of the United States the authority to, by presidential procla ...
protects archaeological material from looting.
The act establishes punishments for
archaeological looting
Archaeological looting is the illicit removal of artifacts from an archaeological site. Such looting is the major source of artifacts for the antiquities market. Looting typically involves either the illegal exportation of artifacts from their c ...
on federal land, allows the US president to declare archaeological sites as national monuments, establishes the government's duty to preserve archaeological sites and make them available for the public, and requires that Archaeology, archaeologists conducting research must meet the guidelines set by the Secretary of the Interior.
Laws and protections around the world
Globally
The
World Archaeological Congress
The World Archaeological Congress (WAC) is a non-governmental, not-for-profit organization which promotes world archaeology. It is the only global archaeological organisation with elected representation.
Established in 1986, WAC holds an internat ...
(WAC) is a global organization that holds a congress every four years to discuss recent publications and research as well as to update archaeological practice guidelines and policies.
The
WAC publishes a code of ethics for their archaeologists to follow.
Some of the accords which have been adopted by the
WAC code of ethics include the Dead Sea Accord, the Vermillion Accord on Human Remains, and the Tamaki Makau-rau Accord on the Display of Human Remains and Sacred Objects.
The
WAC has also published a separate code of ethics for the protection of the Amazon Forest Peoples.
In 1970, the United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization,
UNESCO
The United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization is a specialized agency of the United Nations (UN) aimed at promoting world peace and security through international cooperation in education, arts, sciences and culture. It ...
, held a convention in Paris on the Means of Prohibiting and Preventing the Illicit Import, Export and Transfer of Ownership of Cultural Property. Many countries joined and it was put into use in 1972. It is important to note that archaeological ethics are not the same around the world and what is considered ethical behavior can vary from culture to culture.
Many archaeological organizations around the world require their members to follow a code of ethics; several of these associations, however, do not publish their code of ethics for non-members. Some of these associations include the
Korean Archaeological Society
The Korean Archaeological Society is a professional and scholarly association of archaeologists in South Korea. The Society publishes the peer-reviewed ''Journal of the Korean Archaeological Society'' (Hanja: ; RR: ''Hanguk Kogo-Hakbo''). This jou ...
and the
Japanese Archaeological Association
The (JAA) was established in 1948 and is a nationwide organization concerned with the archaeology of Japan and the preservation of its Cultural Properties. At the time of its establishment there were 81 members and by 1998, 3,387 members, with t ...
.
The Register of Professional Archaeologists is a multinational organization that provides accreditation for archaeologists and adjacent professionals. They provide a network which serves to connect archaeologists to each other and to industries which rely upon their expertise.
America
The
Society for American Archaeology
The Society for American Archaeology (SAA) is a professional association for the archaeology of the Americas. It was founded in 1934 and its headquarters are in based in Washington, D.C. , it has 7,500 members. Its current president is Deborah L. ...
(SAA) is an organization which is dedicated the ethical practice of archaeology and the preservation of archaeological materials in America.
The SAA's committee on archaeological ethics continually updates the living document titled Principles of Archaeological Ethics, which was first created in 1966.
The SAA registers professional archaeologists who must agree to uphold the code of conduct while conducting research.
The United States government continually passes
legislation
Legislation is the process or result of enrolled bill, enrolling, enactment of a bill, enacting, or promulgation, promulgating laws by a legislature, parliament, or analogous Government, governing body. Before an item of legislation becomes law i ...
to protect archaeological materials and uphold ethical archaeological research. The
Antiquities Act of 1906
The Antiquities Act of 1906 (, , ), is an act that was passed by the United States Congress and signed into law by Theodore Roosevelt on June 8, 1906. This law gives the President of the United States the authority to, by presidential procla ...
established punishment for archaeological looting, ensured the governments' responsibility to preserve archaeological sites, and created guidelines for conducting archaeological research.
The Historic Sites Act of 1935 further confirmed that the preservation of archaeological sites is of national concern.
The
National Historic Preservation Act of 1966
The National Historic Preservation Act (NHPA; Public Law 89-665; 54 U.S.C. 300101 ''et seq.'') is legislation intended to preserve historic and archaeological sites in the United States of America. The act created the National Register of Historic ...
provided federal protection of archaeological sites and established the need for environmental review, ensuring that development does not destroy archaeological material.
The
Archaeological Resource Protection Act of 1979 states that archaeological materials must be preserved once they are discovered.
The
Native American Graves Repatriation Act of 1990 (NAGPRA) constitutes that museums receiving government funding must attempt to return archaeological materials to Native Americans if the natives claim the material.
NAGPRA
The Native American Graves Protection and Repatriation Act (NAGPRA), Pub. L. 101-601, 25 U.S.C. 3001 et seq., 104 Stat. 3048, is a United States federal law enacted on November 16, 1990.
The Act requires federal agencies and institutions that ...
also states that native organizations must be consulted when Native American materials are found or are expected to be found.
Europe
The
European Association of Archaeologists
The European Association of Archaeologists (EAA) is a membership-based, not-for-profit association, open to archaeologists and other related or interested individuals or bodies in Europe and beyond. It was founded in 1994 at an inaugural meeting in ...
(EAA), like the Society for American Archaeology in the United States, is an organization which regulates the ethical practice of archaeology across Europe.
The EAA requires its members to follow a published code of ethics.
The code of ethics requires archaeologists to inform the public of their work, preserve archaeological sites, and evaluate the social and ecological impacts of their work before beginning.
This code further provides an ethical framework for conducting contractual archaeology, fieldwork training, and journal publications.
While the EAA regulates ethical archaeological practices across Europe, the British Association for Biological Anthropology and Osteoarcheology further provides an ethical guideline for British archaeologists who are conducting research with human remains.
Australia
The
Australian Archaeological Association
The Australian Archaeological Association (AAA) is an archaeological organisation in Australia. Membership is open to anyone interested in furthering archaeology in Australia.
Sometimes referred to by the nickname ''Triple A'', the association was ...
(AAA) is an organization which regulates and promotes archaeology across Australia.
The AAA has a published code of ethics which its members must follow.
The AAA code of ethics highlights issues such as gaining
informed consent
Informed consent is a principle in medical ethics and medical law, that a patient must have sufficient information and understanding before making decisions about their medical care. Pertinent information may include risks and benefits of treatme ...
, rights of indigenous people, and conservation of heritage sites.
The AAA code of ethics also states that any member who fails to adhere to the code is subject to disciplinary action.
Canada
The
Canadian Archaeological Association
The Canadian Archeological Association (CAA) is the primary archaeological organization in Canada. The CAA was founded in 1968 by a group of archaeologists that included William E. Taylor, the head of the Archaeology Division at the National Museum ...
(CAA) exists to promote archaeological knowledge, promote general interest in archaeology, and to act as a liaison between Canadian
Aboriginals and archaeologists studying their ancestors.
The CAA assures ethical archaeological practices among their members by offering a principles of ethics guideline.
These principles of ethics focuses on assuring access to knowledge, conserving archaeological sites whenever possible, and promoting ethical relationships between
Aboriginals and archaeologists.
National and international controversies
![Signage in the Walton Hall of Ancient Egypt at Carnegie Museum of Natural History in Pittsburgh, PA](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/ec/Signage_in_the_Walton_Hall_of_Ancient_Egypt_at_Carnegie_Museum_of_Natural_History_in_Pittsburgh%2C_PA.jpg)
Many archaeologists in the West today are employees of national governments or are privately employed instruments of government-derived archaeology legislation. In all cases this legislation is a compromise to some degree or another between the interests of the archaeological remains and the interests of economic development.
Germany
A question of control and ownership over the past has also been raised through the political manipulation of the
archaeological record
The archaeological record is the body of physical (not written) evidence about the past. It is one of the core concepts in archaeology, the academic discipline concerned with documenting and interpreting the archaeological record. Archaeological th ...
to promote
nationalism
Nationalism is an idea and movement that holds that the nation should be congruent with the State (polity), state. As a movement, nationalism tends to promote the interests of a particular nation (as in a in-group and out-group, group of peo ...
and justify military invasion. A famous example is the corps of archaeologists employed by
Adolf Hitler
Adolf Hitler (; 20 April 188930 April 1945) was an Austrian-born German politician who was dictator of Nazi Germany, Germany from 1933 until Death of Adolf Hitler, his death in 1945. Adolf Hitler's rise to power, He rose to power as the le ...
to excavate in central Europe in the hope of finding evidence for a region-wide
Aryan
Aryan or Arya (, Indo-Iranian *''arya'') is a term originally used as an ethnocultural self-designation by Indo-Iranians in ancient times, in contrast to the nearby outsiders known as 'non-Aryan' (*''an-arya''). In Ancient India, the term ' ...
culture.
United Kingdom
Questions regarding the ethical validity of government heritage policies and whether they sufficiently protect important remains are raised during cases such as
High Speed 1
High Speed 1 (HS1), legally the Channel Tunnel Rail Link (CTRL), is a high-speed railway linking London with the Channel Tunnel.
It is part of a line carrying international passenger traffic between the United Kingdom and mainland Europe; ...
in
London
London is the capital and largest city of England and the United Kingdom, with a population of just under 9 million. It stands on the River Thames in south-east England at the head of a estuary down to the North Sea, and has been a majo ...
where burials at a cemetery at
St Pancras railway station
St Pancras railway station (), also known as London St Pancras or St Pancras International and officially since 2007 as London St Pancras International, is a central London railway terminus on Euston Road in the London Borough of Camden. It is ...
were hurriedly dug using a
JCB and mistreated in order to keep an important infrastructure project on schedule.
Greece
![Euphronios Krater (8254576758)2](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/02/Euphronios_Krater_%288254576758%292.jpg)
The Parthenon marbles, also known as the
Elgin Marbles
The Elgin Marbles (), also known as the Parthenon Marbles ( el, Γλυπτά του Παρθενώνα, lit. "sculptures of the Parthenon"), are a collection of Classical Greek marble sculptures made under the supervision of the architect and s ...
, include a series of stone sculptures and friezes that were from the
Parthenon
The Parthenon (; grc, Παρθενών, , ; ell, Παρθενώνας, , ) is a former temple on the Athenian Acropolis, Greece, that was dedicated to the goddess Athena during the fifth century BC. Its decorative sculptures are considere ...
in Athens, Greece. Greece was under Ottoman rule at the time when Thomas Bruce, 7th Lord of Elgin, or Lord Elgin, as British Ambassador to the
Ottoman Empire
The Ottoman Empire, * ; is an archaic version. The definite article forms and were synonymous * and el, Оθωμανική Αυτοκρατορία, Othōmanikē Avtokratoria, label=none * info page on book at Martin Luther University) ...
asked that he be able to take some of the marbles to a safer place and was granted that in 1801. They were sold in 1816 to the
British Museum
The British Museum is a public museum dedicated to human history, art and culture located in the Bloomsbury area of London. Its permanent collection of eight million works is among the largest and most comprehensive in existence. It docum ...
, and Parliament paid £350,000 for the marbles. Greece has been petitioning to have the marbles returned since 1924, claiming that they were illegally obtained since they were occupied by a foreign force and were not acting in line with the people of Greece.
Italy
In 1972, the
Metropolitan Museum of Art
The Metropolitan Museum of Art of New York City, colloquially "the Met", is the largest art museum in the Americas. Its permanent collection contains over two million works, divided among 17 curatorial departments. The main building at 1000 ...
in New York City purchased the
Euphronious Krater, a vase used for mixing wine and water from a collector named Robert Hecht for $1,000,000. Hecht provided documentation which after Italian investigations proved to be falsified. This falsification was later confirmed in 2001 when authorities found a handwritten memoir of Hecht's. The Krater had been obtained in an illegal excavation in 1971, likely from an Etruscan tomb. It was purchased from the
Giacomo Medici then smuggled into Switzerland and sold to the museum in New York. In 2006, the museum's director,
Philipe de Montebello, agreed to return the Krater along with several other items to Italy. They arrived back in Italy in 2008, and are on display at the
Villa Giulia
The Villa Giulia is a villa in Rome, Italy. It was built by Pope Julius III in 1551–1553 on what was then the edge of the city. Today it is publicly owned, and houses the Museo Nazionale Etrusco, a collection of Etruscan art and artifacts.
Hi ...
in Rome.
Preservation
Another issue is the question of whether unthreatened archaeological remains should be excavated (and therefore destroyed) or preserved intact for future generations to investigate with potentially less invasive technology. Some archaeological guidance such as
PPG 16 has established a strong ethical argument for only excavating sites threatened with destruction. New technology such as laser scanning has pioneered non-invasive techniques for recording petroglyphs and engravings. Other technology like GPS and Google Earth has revolutionized the way archaeologists find and record potential archaeological sites.
In the United States, several acts have been passed to help preserve archaeological sites.
Some of these acts include the
National Historic Preservation act of 1966
The National Historic Preservation Act (NHPA; Public Law 89-665; 54 U.S.C. 300101 ''et seq.'') is legislation intended to preserve historic and archaeological sites in the United States of America. The act created the National Register of Historic ...
, which allows for archaeological sites and materials of historical significance to be placed under federal protection, and the
Archaeological Resources Protection Act (ARPA) of 1979, which places all archaeological sites under federal protection, not just sites of historical significance.
Cultural resource management
In the broadest sense, cultural resource management (CRM) is the vocation and practice of managing heritage assets, and other cultural resources such as contemporary art. It incorporates Cultural Heritage Management which is concerned with traditio ...
is a branch of archaeology which attempts to protect archaeological sites from development and construction damage.
Ethics in ethnoarchaeology
Ethnoarchaeology Ethnoarchaeology is the ethnographic study of peoples for archaeological reasons, usually through the study of the material remains of a society (see David & Kramer 2001). Ethnoarchaeology aids archaeologists in reconstructing ancient lifeways by s ...
is the ethnographic study of people from an archaeological point of view. These studies are typically conducted on material remains from the society in question, is sometimes used in conjunction with traditional archaeology. Ethnoarchaeology presents a unique case, because it deals with the study of people, which is heavily regulated.
Any research dealing with humans must be submitted to an ethics committee for approval under the Nuremberg Code (1947) and the
Declaration of Helsinki
The Declaration of Helsinki (DoH, fi, Helsingin julistus, sv, Helsingforsdeklarationen) is a set of ethical principles regarding human experimentation developed originally in 1964 for the medical community by the World Medical Association (WMA) ...
(1964).
Researchers must also obtain
informed consent
Informed consent is a principle in medical ethics and medical law, that a patient must have sufficient information and understanding before making decisions about their medical care. Pertinent information may include risks and benefits of treatme ...
from their research subjects.
Archaeologists conducting ethnoarchaeology or other types of research involving humans must adhere to a certain code in order to conduct legal and ethical research, however, this code is the same that is followed by
medical research
Medical research (or biomedical research), also known as experimental medicine, encompasses a wide array of research, extending from "basic research" (also called ''bench science'' or ''bench research''), – involving fundamental scientif ...
. There is no specific code for archaeological research involving humans.
This has been problematic and some archaeologists resist following a
medical ethics
Medical ethics is an applied branch of ethics which analyzes the practice of clinical medicine and related scientific research. Medical ethics is based on a set of values that professionals can refer to in the case of any confusion or conflict. T ...
code by claiming that
medical research
Medical research (or biomedical research), also known as experimental medicine, encompasses a wide array of research, extending from "basic research" (also called ''bench science'' or ''bench research''), – involving fundamental scientif ...
and
ethnographic
Ethnography (from Greek ''ethnos'' "folk, people, nation" and ''grapho'' "I write") is a branch of anthropology and the systematic study of individual cultures. Ethnography explores cultural phenomena from the point of view of the subject o ...
research are too different to follow the same code.
External links
The Code of Ethics of the Archaeological Institute of AmericaInstitute of Field Archaeologists Code of ConductEthics and archaeologyfrom th
Society for American ArchaeologyBritish Sociological AssociationSocial Anthropology of the UK and the CommonwealthThe Economic and Social Research Council
References
{{Archaeology
Philosophy of archaeology
Methods in archaeology
Professional ethics