Arc measurement,
sometimes degree measurement (german: Gradmessung),
is the
astrogeodetic technique of determining of the
radius of Earth
Earth radius (denoted as ''R''🜨 or R_E) is the distance from the center of Earth to a point on or near its surface. Approximating the figure of Earth by an Earth spheroid, the radius ranges from a maximum of nearly (equatorial radius, deno ...
– more specifically, the local
Earth radius of curvature of the
figure of the Earth – by relating the
latitude
In geography, latitude is a coordinate that specifies the north– south position of a point on the surface of the Earth or another celestial body. Latitude is given as an angle that ranges from –90° at the south pole to 90° at the north pol ...
difference (sometimes also the
longitude
Longitude (, ) is a geographic coordinate that specifies the east– west position of a point on the surface of the Earth, or another celestial body. It is an angular measurement, usually expressed in degrees and denoted by the Greek lette ...
difference) and the
geographic distance
Geographical distance or geodetic distance is the distance measured along the surface of the earth. The formulae in this article calculate distances between points which are defined by geographical coordinates in terms of latitude and longitude. ...
(
arc length
ARC may refer to:
Business
* Aircraft Radio Corporation, a major avionics manufacturer from the 1920s to the '50s
* Airlines Reporting Corporation, an airline-owned company that provides ticket distribution, reporting, and settlement services
* ...
)
surveyed
Surveying or land surveying is the technique, profession, art, and science of determining the land, terrestrial Two-dimensional space#In geometry, two-dimensional or Three-dimensional space#In Euclidean geometry, three-dimensional positions of ...
between two locations on Earth's surface. The most common variant involves only
astronomical latitude
In geography, latitude is a coordinate that specifies the north– south position of a point on the surface of the Earth or another celestial body. Latitude is given as an angle that ranges from –90° at the south pole to 90° at the north pol ...
s and the
meridian arc length and is called ''meridian arc measurement''; other variants may involve only
astronomical longitude (''
parallel
Parallel is a geometric term of location which may refer to:
Computing
* Parallel algorithm
* Parallel computing
* Parallel metaheuristic
* Parallel (software), a UNIX utility for running programs in parallel
* Parallel Sysplex, a cluster of ...
arc measurement'') or both
geographic coordinates
The geographic coordinate system (GCS) is a spherical or ellipsoidal coordinate system for measuring and communicating positions directly on the Earth as latitude and longitude. It is the simplest, oldest and most widely used of the various ...
(''oblique arc measurement'').
Arc measurement campaigns in Europe were the precursors to the
International Association of Geodesy
The International Association of Geodesy (IAG) is a constituent association of the International Union of Geodesy and Geophysics. Overview
The precursors to the IAG were arc measurement campaigns. The IAG was founded in 1862 as the ''Mitteleuro ...
(IAG).
History
The first known arc measurement was performed by
Eratosthenes (240 BC) between Alexandria and Syene in what is now Egypt, determining the radius of the Earth with remarkable correctness.
In the early 8th century,
Yi Xing
Yi Xing (, 683–727), born Zhang Sui (), was a Chinese astronomer, Buddhist monk, inventor, mathematician, mechanical engineer, and philosopher during the Tang dynasty. His astronomical celestial globe featured a liquid-driven escapement, the ...
performed a similar survey.
The French physician
Jean Fernel
Jean François Fernel ( Latinized as Ioannes Fernelius; 1497 – 26 April 1558) was a French physician who introduced the term "physiology" to describe the study of the body's function. He was the first person to describe the spinal canal. The l ...
measured the arc in 1528. The Dutch geodesist
Snellius (~1620) repeated the experiment between
Alkmaar and
Bergen op Zoom
Bergen op Zoom (; called ''Berrege'' in the local dialect) is a municipality and a city located in the south of the Netherlands.
Etymology
The city was built on a place where two types of soil meet: sandy soil and marine clay. The sandy soil ...
using more modern geodetic instrumentation (''
Snellius' triangulation
Willebrord Snellius (born Willebrord Snel van Royen) (13 June 158030 October 1626) was a Dutch astronomer and mathematician, Snell. His name is usually associated with the law of refraction of light known as Snell's law.
The lunar crater Sn ...
'').
Later arc measurements aimed at determining the
flattening
Flattening is a measure of the compression of a circle or sphere along a diameter to form an ellipse or an ellipsoid of revolution ( spheroid) respectively. Other terms used are ellipticity, or oblateness. The usual notation for flattening i ...
of the Earth ellipsoid by measuring at different
geographic latitude
In geography, latitude is a coordinate that specifies the north–south position of a point on the surface of the Earth or another celestial body. Latitude is given as an angle that ranges from –90° at the south pole to 90° at the north pole ...
s. The first of these was the ''
French Geodesic Mission
The French Geodesic Mission to the Equator (french: Expédition géodésique française en Équateur, also called the French Geodesic Mission to Peru and the Spanish-French Geodesic Mission) was an 18th-century expedition to what is now Ecuador c ...
'', commissioned by the
French Academy of Sciences in 1735–1738, involving measurement expeditions to Lapland (
Maupertuis
Pierre Louis Moreau de Maupertuis (; ; 1698 – 27 July 1759) was a French mathematician, philosopher and man of letters. He became the Director of the Académie des Sciences, and the first President of the Prussian Academy of Science, at the ...
et al.) and Peru (
Pierre Bouguer et al.).
Struve measured a
geodetic control network
A geodetic control network (also geodetic network, reference network, control point network, or control network) is a network, often of triangles, which are measured precisely by techniques of terrestrial surveying or by satellite geodesy.
...
via
triangulation between the
Arctic Sea and the
Black Sea
The Black Sea is a marginal mediterranean sea of the Atlantic Ocean lying between Europe and Asia, east of the Balkans, south of the East European Plain, west of the Caucasus, and north of Anatolia. It is bounded by Bulgaria, Georgia, Rom ...
, the ''
Struve Geodetic Arc''.
Bessel compiled several
meridian arcs, to compute the famous
Bessel ellipsoid
The Bessel ellipsoid (or Bessel 1841) is an important reference ellipsoid of geodesy. It is currently used by several countries for their national geodetic surveys, but will be replaced in the next decades by modern ellipsoids of satellite geod ...
(1841).
Nowadays, the method is replaced by worldwide
geodetic network
A geodetic control network (also geodetic network, reference network, control point network, or control network) is a network, often of triangles, which are measured precisely by techniques of terrestrial surveying or by satellite geodesy.
A ...
s and by
satellite geodesy
Satellite geodesy is geodesy by means of artificial satellites—the measurement of the form and dimensions of Earth, the location of objects on its surface and the figure of the Earth's gravity field by means of artificial satellite techniques ...
.
List of other instances
*
Al-Ma'mun's arc measurement
The Arab, Arabic, or Arabian mile ( ar, الميل, ''al-mīl'') was a historical Arabic unit of length. Its precise length is disputed, lying between 1.8 and 2.0 km. It was used by medieval Arab geographers and astronomers. The predecessor o ...
*
Posidonius' arc measurement
Posidonius (; grc-gre, Ποσειδώνιος , "of Poseidon") "of Apameia" (ὁ Ἀπαμεύς) or "of Rhodes" (ὁ Ῥόδιος) (), was a Greek politician, astronomer, astrologer, geographer, historian, mathematician, and teacher nati ...
*
Swedish–Russian Arc-of-Meridian Expedition
The Swedish–Russian Arc-of-Meridian expedition was a scientific expedition to Svalbard that took place from 1899 to 1902. The main purpose of the mission was to measure a meridian arc, in order to determine the earth flattening at the poles.
Th ...
*
Picard's arc measurement
Jean Picard (21 July 1620 – 12 July 1682) was a French astronomer and priest born in La Flèche, where he studied at the Jesuit Collège Royal Henry-Le-Grand.
He is principally notable for his accurate measure of the size of the Earth, ba ...
*
Dunkirk-Collioure arc measurement (Cassini, Cassini, and de La Hire)
*
*
Meridian arc of Delambre and Méchain
*
West Europe-Africa Meridian-arc
*
De Lacaille's arc measurement
Abbé Nicolas-Louis de Lacaille (; 15 March 171321 March 1762), formerly sometimes spelled de la Caille, was a French astronomer and geodesist who named 14 out of the 88 constellations. From 1750 to 1754, he studied the sky at the Cape of Goo ...
*
Fernel's arc measurement
*
Norwood's arc measurement
*
Boscovich and Maire's arc measurement
*
Maclear's arc measurement
*
Hopfner's arc measurement
Determination
Assume the
astronomic latitude
In geography, latitude is a coordinate that specifies the north–south position of a point on the surface of the Earth or another celestial body. Latitude is given as an angle that ranges from –90° at the south pole to 90° at the north pol ...
s of two endpoints,
(standpoint) and
(forepoint), are precisely
determined by
astrogeodesy
Geodetic astronomy or astronomical geodesy (astro-geodesy) is the application of astronomical methods into geodetic networks and other technical projects of geodesy.
Applications
The most important applications are:
* Establishment of geodetic d ...
, observing the
zenith distance
The zenith (, ) is an imaginary point directly "above" a particular location, on the celestial sphere. "Above" means in the vertical direction (plumb line) opposite to the gravity direction at that location (nadir). The zenith is the "highest" ...
s of sufficient numbers of
stars (
meridian altitude Meridian altitude is a method of celestial navigation to calculate an observer's latitude. It notes the altitude angle of an astronomical object above the horizon at culmination.
Principle
Meridian altitude is the simplest calculation of celestial ...
method). The empirical
Earth's meridional radius of curvature
Earth radius (denoted as ''R''🜨 or R_E) is the distance from the center of Earth to a point on or near its surface. Approximating the figure of Earth by an Earth spheroid, the radius ranges from a maximum of nearly (equatorial radius, deno ...
at the midpoint of the meridian arc can then be determined as:
:
where
is the
arc length
ARC may refer to:
Business
* Aircraft Radio Corporation, a major avionics manufacturer from the 1920s to the '50s
* Airlines Reporting Corporation, an airline-owned company that provides ticket distribution, reporting, and settlement services
* ...
on
mean sea level
There are several kinds of mean in mathematics, especially in statistics. Each mean serves to summarize a given group of data, often to better understand the overall value (magnitude and sign) of a given data set.
For a data set, the '' ari ...
(MSL).
Historically, the distance between two places has been determined at low precision by
pacing or
odometry
Odometry is the use of data from motion sensors to estimate change in position over time. It is used in robotics by some legged or wheeled robots to estimate their position relative to a starting location. This method is sensitive to errors due t ...
.
High precision land surveys can be used to determine the distance between two places at nearly the same longitude by measuring a
baseline and a
triangulation network
In surveying, triangulation is the process of determining the location of a point by measuring only angles to it from known points at either end of a fixed baseline by using trigonometry, rather than measuring distances to the point directly as ...
linking
fixed points. The
meridian distance from one end point to a fictitious point at the same latitude as the second end point is then calculated by trigonometry. The surface distance
is reduced to the corresponding distance at MSL,
(see:
Geographical distance#Altitude correction).
Two arc measurements at different latitudinal bands serve to
determine Earth's flattening.
See also
*
Astrogeodesy
Geodetic astronomy or astronomical geodesy (astro-geodesy) is the application of astronomical methods into geodetic networks and other technical projects of geodesy.
Applications
The most important applications are:
* Establishment of geodetic d ...
*
Earth ellipsoid
An Earth ellipsoid or Earth spheroid is a mathematical figure approximating the Earth's form, used as a reference frame for computations in geodesy, astronomy, and the geosciences. Various different ellipsoids have been used as approximations ...
*
Geodesy
*
Gradian#Relation to the metre
*
History of geodesy
The history of geodesy deals with the historical development of measurements and representations of the Earth. The corresponding scientific discipline, '' geodesy'' ( /dʒiːˈɒdɪsi/), began in pre-scientific antiquity and blossomed during th ...
**
Spherical Earth#History
**
Meridian arc#History
**
Earth's circumference#History
*
Meridian arc
*
Paris Meridian
References
{{DEFAULTSORT:Grade Measurement
Geodetic surveys