Arawakan (''Arahuacan, Maipuran Arawakan, "mainstream" Arawakan, Arawakan proper''), also known as Maipurean (also ''Maipuran, Maipureano, Maipúre''), is a
language family
A language family is a group of languages related through descent from a common ''ancestral language'' or ''parental language'', called the proto-language of that family. The term "family" reflects the tree model of language origination in h ...
that developed among ancient
indigenous peoples in South America
The Indigenous peoples of South America or South American Indigenous peoples, are the pre-Colombian peoples of South America and their descendants. These peoples contrast with South Americans of European ancestry and those of African descent. ...
. Branches migrated to
Central America
Central America ( es, América Central or ) is a subregion of the Americas. Its boundaries are defined as bordering the United States to the north, Colombia to the south, the Caribbean Sea to the east, and the Pacific Ocean to the west. ...
and the Greater Antilles in the Caribbean and the Atlantic, including what is now the Bahamas. Almost all present-day South American countries are known to have been home to speakers of Arawakan languages, the exceptions being
Ecuador
Ecuador ( ; ; Quechua: ''Ikwayur''; Shuar: ''Ecuador'' or ''Ekuatur''), officially the Republic of Ecuador ( es, República del Ecuador, which literally translates as "Republic of the Equator"; Quechua: ''Ikwadur Ripuwlika''; Shuar: ' ...
,
Uruguay
Uruguay (; ), officially the Oriental Republic of Uruguay ( es, República Oriental del Uruguay), is a country in South America. It shares borders with Argentina to its west and southwest and Brazil to its north and northeast; while bordering ...
, and
Chile
Chile, officially the Republic of Chile, is a country in the western part of South America. It is the southernmost country in the world, and the closest to Antarctica, occupying a long and narrow strip of land between the Andes to the east a ...
. Maipurean may be related to other language families in a hypothetical
Macro-Arawakan
Macro-Arawakan is a proposed language family of South America and the Caribbean centered on the Arawakan languages
Arawakan (''Arahuacan, Maipuran Arawakan, "mainstream" Arawakan, Arawakan proper''), also known as Maipurean (also ''Maipuran, ...
stock.
Name
The name ''Maipure'' was given to the family by
Filippo S. Gilij
Filippo Salvatore Gilii (Spanish: Felipe Salvador Gilij) (1721–1789) was an Italian Jesuit priest who lived in the Province of Venezuela (in present day central Venezuela) on the Orinoco River. Gilii is a highly celebrated figure in early Sout ...
in 1782, after the
Maipure language
Maipure (Maypure, Mejepure), was a language once spoken along the Ventuari, Sipapo, and Autana rivers of Amazonas and, as a lingua franca, in the Upper Orinoco region. It became extinct around the end of the eighteenth century. Zamponi provid ...
of
Venezuela
Venezuela (; ), officially the Bolivarian Republic of Venezuela ( es, link=no, República Bolivariana de Venezuela), is a country on the northern coast of South America, consisting of a continental landmass and many islands and islets in th ...
, which he used as a basis of his comparisons. It was renamed after the culturally more important
Arawak language
Arawak (, ), also known as Lokono (Lokono Dian, literally "people's talk" by its speakers), is an Arawakan language spoken by the Lokono (Arawak) people of South America in eastern Venezuela, Guyana, Suriname, and French Guiana. It is the epony ...
a century later. The term ''Arawak'' took over, until its use was extended by North American scholars to the broader
Macro-Arawakan
Macro-Arawakan is a proposed language family of South America and the Caribbean centered on the Arawakan languages
Arawakan (''Arahuacan, Maipuran Arawakan, "mainstream" Arawakan, Arawakan proper''), also known as Maipurean (also ''Maipuran, ...
proposal. At that time, the name ''Maipurean'' was resurrected for the core family. See Arawakan ''vs'' Maipurean for details.
Dispersal
The ''Arawakan linguistic matrix hypothesis'' (ALMH) suggests that the modern diversity of the Arawakan language family stems from the diversification of a
trade language
A lingua franca (; ; for plurals see ), also known as a bridge language, common language, trade language, auxiliary language, vehicular language, or link language, is a language systematically used to make communication possible between groups ...
or lingua franca that was spoken throughout much of tropical lowland South America. Proponents of this hypothesis include Santos-Granero (2002) and Eriksen (2014). Eriksen (2014) proposes that the Arawakan family had only broken up after 600 CE, but Michael (2020) considers this to be unlikely, noting that Arawakan internal diversity is greater than that of the Romance languages. On the other hand, Blench (2015) suggests a demographic expansion that had taken place over a few thousand years, similar to the dispersals of the Austronesian and
Austroasiatic
The Austroasiatic languages , , are a large language family in Mainland Southeast Asia and South Asia. These languages are scattered throughout parts of Thailand, Laos, India, Myanmar, Malaysia, Bangladesh, Nepal, and southern China and are th ...
Leko Leko may refer to:
* Leko (surname)
* Leko languages, a small group of African Savanna languages
* Leco language, a moribund isolate language of Bolivia
* Lekolite or Leko, a type of stage spotlight
* Alexandro da Silva Santos or Leko, Brazilian fo ...
Nambikwara
The Nambikwara (also called Nambikuára) is an indigenous people of Brazil, living in the Amazon. Currently about 1,200 Nambikwara live in indigenous territories in the Brazilian state of Mato Grosso along the Guaporé and Juruena rivers. Thei ...
Urarina
The Urarina are an indigenous people of the Peruvian Amazon Basin ( Loreto) who inhabit the valleys of the Chambira, Urituyacu, and Corrientes Rivers. According to both archaeological and historical sources, they have resided in the Chambira ...
Yaruro
The Yaruro people (or Pumé, according to their self-determination) are a Circum-Caribbean indigenous people, native to the ecoregion of Llanos in Venezuela, located west of the Orinoco River.
, Zaparo, Saliba-Hodi, and Tikuna-Yuri language families due to contact. However, these similarities could be due to inheritance, contact, or chance.
Languages
Classification of Maipurean is difficult because of the large number of Arawakan languages that are extinct and poorly documented. However, apart from transparent relationships that might constitute single languages, several groups of Maipurean languages are generally accepted by scholars. Many classifications agree in dividing Maipurean into northern and southern branches, but perhaps not all languages fit into one or the other. The three classifications below are accepted by all:
* Ta-Maipurean = Caribbean Arawak / Ta-Arawak = Caribbean Maipuran,
* Upper Amazon Maipurean = North Amazonian Arawak = Inland Maipuran,
* Central Maipurean = Pareci–Xingu = Paresí–Waurá = Central Maipuran,
* Piro = Purus,
* Campa = Pre-Andean Maipurean = Pre-Andine Maipuran.
An early contrast between ''Ta-Arawak'' and ''Nu-Arawak'', depending on the prefix for "I", is spurious; ''nu-'' is the ancestral form for the entire family, and ''ta-'' is an innovation of one branch of the family.
Kaufman (1994)
The following (tentative) classification is from Kaufman (1994: 57-60). Details of established branches are given in the linked articles. In addition to the family tree detailed below, there are a few languages that are "Non-Maipurean Arawakan languages or too scantily known to classify" (Kaufman 1994: 58), which include these:
* Shebaye ''(†)''
* Lapachu ''(†)''
* Morique (also known as Morike) ''(†)''
Another language is also mentioned as "Arawakan":
* Salumã (also known as Salumán, Enawené-Nawé)
Including the unclassified languages mentioned above, the Maipurean family has about 64 languages. Out of them, 29 languages are now extinct: Wainumá, Mariaté, Anauyá, Amarizana, Jumana, Pasé, Cawishana, Garú, Marawá, Guinao, Yavitero, Maipure, Manao, Kariaí, Waraikú, Yabaána, Wiriná, Aruán, Taíno, Kalhíphona, Marawán-Karipurá, Saraveca, Custenau, Inapari, Kanamaré, Shebaye, Lapachu, and Morique.
;Northern Maipurean
* ''
Upper Amazon
The Amazon River (, ; es, Río Amazonas, pt, Rio Amazonas) in South America is the largest river by discharge volume of water in the world, and the disputed longest river system in the world in comparison to the Nile.
The headwaters of t ...
branch''
* ''Maritime branch''
** Aruán (Aroã) ''(†)''
** Wapixana (also known as Wapishana): Atorada (also known as Atoraí), Mapidian (also known as Maopidyán),
Wapishana
The Wapishana or Wapichan (or Wapisiana, Wapitxana, Vapidiana, Wapixana) are an indigenous group found in the Roraima area of northern Brazil and southern Guyana.
Location
Currently the Wapishana are located in the State of Roraima, Brazil, n ...
Palikur
The Palikur are an indigenous people located in the riverine areas of the Brazilian state of Amapá and in French Guiana, particularly in the south-eastern border region, on the north bank of the Oyapock River. The Palikur Nation, or ''naoné'', ...
(also known as Palikúr)
*** Marawán ''(†)''
;Southern Maipurean
* ''Western branch''
** Amuesha (also known as Amoesha, Yanesha’)
** Chamicuro (also known as Chamikuro)
* '' Central branch''
* ''Southern Outlier branch''
** Terêna (dialects: Kinikinao, Terena, Guaná,
Chané
Chané is the collective name for the southernmost Arawakan-speaking peoples. They lived in the plains of the northern Gran Chaco and in the foothills of the Andes in Paraguay, Brazil, Bolivia, and Argentina. The historical Chané are divided i ...
)
** Moxos group (also known as Moho)
*** Moxos (Ignaciano & Trinitario)
*** Baure
*** Paunaka (also known as Pauna–Paikone)
** Piro group
* '' Campa branch'' (also known as Pre-Andean)
Kaufman does not report the extinct Magiana of the Moxos group.
Aikhenvald (1999)
Apart from minor decisions on whether a variety is a language or a dialect, changing names, and not addressing several poorly attested languages, Aikhenvald departs from Kaufman in breaking up the ''Southern Outlier'' and ''Western'' branches of Southern Maipurean. She assigns Salumã and Lapachu ('
Apolista
Apolista is a native South American nation of western Bolivia. Sedentary farmers, hunters, gatherers and fishers, they spoke an Arawakan languages
Arawakan (''Arahuacan, Maipuran Arawakan, "mainstream" Arawakan, Arawakan proper''), also known ...
') to what is left of Southern Outlier ('South Arawak'); breaks up the ''Maritime'' branch of Northern Maipurean, though keeping Aruán and Palikur together; and is agnostic about the sub-grouping of the ''North Amazonian'' branch of Northern Maipurean.
The following breakdown uses Aikhenvald's nomenclature followed by Kaufman's:
;North Arawak = Northern Maipurean
*Rio Branco = Kaufman's Wapishanan (2) Mawayana"_and_Mawakwa_as_a_possible_dialect.html" ;"title="Mawayana_language.html" ;"title="ith Mapidian under the name " Mawayana"_and_Mawakwa_as_a_possible_dialect">Mawayana_language.html"_;"title="ith_Mapidian_under_the_name_"Mawayana_language">Mawayana"_and_Mawakwa_as_a_possible_dialect*Palikur_=_Kaufman's_Palikur_+_ Mawayana"_and_Mawakwa_as_a_possible_dialect">Mawayana_language.html"_;"title="ith_Mapidian_under_the_name_"Mawayana_language">Mawayana"_and_Mawakwa_as_a_possible_dialect*Palikur_=_Kaufman's_Palikur_+_Aroã_language">Aruán_(3)
*Caribbean_Arawakan.html" ;"title="Aroã_language.html" ;"title="Mawayana language">Mawayana" and Mawakwa as a possible dialect">Mawayana_language.html" ;"title="ith Mapidian under the name "Mawayana language">Mawayana" and Mawakwa as a possible dialect*Palikur = Kaufman's Palikur + Aroã language">Aruán (3)
*Caribbean Arawakan">Caribbean = Ta-Maipurean (8) [incl. Shebaye]
*Upper Amazon Arawakan, North Amazonian = Upper Amazon (17 attested)
;South and South-Western Arawak = Southern Maipurean
*South Arawak =
Terena
The Trans-European Research and Education Networking Association (TERENA, ) was a not-for-profit association of European national research and education networks (NRENs) incorporated in Amsterdam, The Netherlands. The association was originally f ...
+ Kaufman's Moxos group + Enawene Nawe language, Salumã + LapachuApolista'(11)
* Pareci–Xingu = Central Maipurean (6)
* South-Western Arawak = Piro (5)
* Campa (6)
* Amuesha (1)
* Chamicuro (1)
Aikhenvald classifies Kaufman's unclassified languages apart from Morique. She does not classify 15 extinct languages which Kaufman had placed in various branches of Maipurean.
Aikhenvald (1999:69) classifies Mawayana with
Wapishana
The Wapishana or Wapichan (or Wapisiana, Wapitxana, Vapidiana, Wapixana) are an indigenous group found in the Roraima area of northern Brazil and southern Guyana.
Location
Currently the Wapishana are located in the State of Roraima, Brazil, n ...
together under a Rio Branco branch, giving for Mawayana also the names "Mapidian" and "Mawakwa" (with some reservations for the latter).
Bayesian
Thomas Bayes (/beɪz/; c. 1701 – 1761) was an English statistician, philosopher, and Presbyterian minister.
Bayesian () refers either to a range of concepts and approaches that relate to statistical methods based on Bayes' theorem, or a followe ...
computational phylogenetics
Computational phylogenetics is the application of computational algorithms, methods, and programs to phylogenetic
, classify the Arawakan languages as follows.
The internal structures of each branch is given below. Note that the strictly binary splits are a result of the
Bayesian
Thomas Bayes (/beɪz/; c. 1701 – 1761) was an English statistician, philosopher, and Presbyterian minister.
Bayesian () refers either to a range of concepts and approaches that relate to statistical methods based on Bayes' theorem, or a followe ...
Terena
The Trans-European Research and Education Networking Association (TERENA, ) was a not-for-profit association of European national research and education networks (NRENs) incorporated in Amsterdam, The Netherlands. The association was originally f ...
Trinitario
The Trinitarios is an Dominican American criminal organization founded by Dominicans in New York City, New York in 1993.
History
The Trinitarios were established in 1993 on Rikers Island, the New York City jail,Luis Ferré-Sadurní & Barbara M ...
Apurinã
The Apurinã, also called TheIpurinã, Ipurinãn, Kangite, Popukare ( endonym), are an indigenous people who live near the Purus River in western Brazil
Brazil ( pt, Brasil; ), officially the Federative Republic of Brazil (Portuguese: ), is ...
***(''branch'')
****
Iñapari
Iñapari is a Peruvian village capital of the Tahuamanu Province in the Madre de Dios Region, located on the triple border of Bolivia, Brazil and Peru. It is connected to Brazil by the Brazil-Peru Integration Bridge, an international bridge cr ...
Nomatsiguenga
The Machiguenga (also Matsigenka, Matsigenga) are an indigenous peoples of the Americas, indigenous people who live in the high jungle, or''montaña'', area on the eastern slopes of the Andes and in the Amazon Basin jungle regions of southeastern ...
Taíno
The Taíno were a historic indigenous people of the Caribbean whose culture has been continued today by Taíno descendant communities and Taíno revivalist communities. At the time of European contact in the late 15th century, they were the pri ...
****
Island Carib
The Kalinago, also known as the Island Caribs or simply Caribs, are an indigenous people of the Lesser Antilles in the Caribbean. They may have been related to the Mainland Caribs (Kalina) of South America, but they spoke an unrelated languag ...
,
Garífuna
The Garifuna people ( or ; pl. Garínagu in Garifuna) are a people of mixed free African and indigenous American ancestry that originated in the Caribbean island of Saint Vincent and speak Garifuna, an Arawakan language, and Vincentian Cr ...
***
Lokono
The Lokono or Arawak are an Arawak people native to northern coastal areas of South America. Today, approximately 10,000 Lokono live primarily along the coasts and rivers of Venezuela, Guyana, Suriname, Barbados and French Guiana. They speak t ...
Yukuna
Yucuna (Jukuna), also known as Matapi, Yucuna-Matapi, and Yukunais, is an Arawakan language spoken in several communities along the Mirití-Paraná River in Colombia. Extinct Guarú (Garú) was either a dialect or a closely related language.
...
Piapoco
Piapoco is an Arawakan language of Colombia and Venezuela.
A "Ponares" language is inferred from surnames, and may have been Piapoco or Achagua.
History
Piapoco is a branch of the Arawak language, which also includes Achagua and Tariana. P ...
University of Brasília
The University of Brasília ( pt, Universidade de Brasília, UnB) is a federal public university in Brasília, the capital of Brazil. It was founded in 1960 and has since consistently been named among the top five Brazilian universities and the ...
Portuguese
Portuguese may refer to:
* anything of, from, or related to the country and nation of Portugal
** Portuguese cuisine, traditional foods
** Portuguese language, a Romance language
*** Portuguese dialects, variants of the Portuguese language
** Portu ...
article)
*****Mojo-Paunaka
******
Mojo
Mojo may refer to:
* Mojo (African-American culture), a magical charm bag used in voodoo
Arts, entertainment and media Film and television
* MOJO HD, an American television network
* ''Mojo'' (play), by Jez Butterworth, made into a 1997 film
* ' ...
Trinitario
The Trinitarios is an Dominican American criminal organization founded by Dominicans in New York City, New York in 1993.
History
The Trinitarios were established in 1993 on Rikers Island, the New York City jail,Luis Ferré-Sadurní & Barbara M ...
Terena
The Trans-European Research and Education Networking Association (TERENA, ) was a not-for-profit association of European national research and education networks (NRENs) incorporated in Amsterdam, The Netherlands. The association was originally f ...
Pase
Pase or PASE may refer to:
* Pasé language, an extinct Arawakan language
* Prosopography of Anglo-Saxon England
* Portable Applications Solutions Environment
* Dunaújváros PASE, a Hungarian football club
See also
* Passe (disambiguation) ...
Yukuna
Yucuna (Jukuna), also known as Matapi, Yucuna-Matapi, and Yukunais, is an Arawakan language spoken in several communities along the Mirití-Paraná River in Colombia. Extinct Guarú (Garú) was either a dialect or a closely related language.
...
Nanti
Nanti is an Arawakan language spoken by approximately 250 people in southeastern Peruvian Amazonia, principally in a number of small communities located near the headwaters of the Camisea and Timpía Rivers. It belongs to the Kampan branch of ...
Apurinã
The Apurinã, also called TheIpurinã, Ipurinãn, Kangite, Popukare ( endonym), are an indigenous people who live near the Purus River in western Brazil
Brazil ( pt, Brasil; ), officially the Federative Republic of Brazil (Portuguese: ), is ...
''
****''
Iñapari
Iñapari is a Peruvian village capital of the Tahuamanu Province in the Madre de Dios Region, located on the triple border of Bolivia, Brazil and Peru. It is connected to Brazil by the Brazil-Peru Integration Bridge, an international bridge cr ...
Palikur
The Palikur are an indigenous people located in the riverine areas of the Brazilian state of Amapá and in French Guiana, particularly in the south-eastern border region, on the north bank of the Oyapock River. The Palikur Nation, or ''naoné'', ...
Tapajós
The Tapajós ( pt, Rio Tapajós ) is a river in Brazil. It runs through the Amazon Rainforest and is a major tributary of the Amazon River. When combined with the Juruena River, the Tapajós is approximately long. It is one of the largest clearw ...
Tapajós
The Tapajós ( pt, Rio Tapajós ) is a river in Brazil. It runs through the Amazon Rainforest and is a major tributary of the Amazon River. When combined with the Juruena River, the Tapajós is approximately long. It is one of the largest clearw ...
Yawalapiti
The Yawalapiti (also Jaulapiti, Yaulapiti, or Yawalapití) are an indigenous tribe in the Amazonian Basin of Brazil. The name is also spelled Iaualapiti in Portuguese. The current village Yawalapiti is situated more to the south, between the Tu ...
Palikur
The Palikur are an indigenous people located in the riverine areas of the Brazilian state of Amapá and in French Guiana, particularly in the south-eastern border region, on the north bank of the Oyapock River. The Palikur Nation, or ''naoné'', ...
Wayuu
The Wayuu (also Wayu, Wayúu, Guajiro, Wahiro) are an Amerindian ethnic group of the Guajira Peninsula in northernmost part of Colombia and northwest Venezuela. The Wayuu language is part of the Maipuran (Arawak) language family.
Geography
...
''
*****Lokono-Iñeri
******Iñeri: ''
Garifuna
The Garifuna people ( or ; pl. Garínagu in Garifuna) are a people of mixed free African and indigenous American ancestry that originated in the Caribbean island of Saint Vincent and speak Garifuna, an Arawakan language, and Vincentian ...
Lokono
The Lokono or Arawak are an Arawak people native to northern coastal areas of South America. Today, approximately 10,000 Lokono live primarily along the coasts and rivers of Venezuela, Guyana, Suriname, Barbados and French Guiana. They speak t ...
Negro
In the English language, ''negro'' is a term historically used to denote persons considered to be of Black African heritage. The word ''negro'' means the color black in both Spanish and in Portuguese, where English took it from. The term can be ...
Bawana
Bawana is a census town founded by two Gaur Brahmins Kala and Thukrai in the North West district of Delhi, India. It houses the Bawana Fortress of Zail (also called Bawana Tehsil), a Zail headquarter built by the who were (chief) of Bawana Zai ...
Wapishana
The Wapishana or Wapichan (or Wapisiana, Wapitxana, Vapidiana, Wapixana) are an indigenous group found in the Roraima area of northern Brazil and southern Guyana.
Location
Currently the Wapishana are located in the State of Roraima, Brazil, n ...
Palikur
The Palikur are an indigenous people located in the riverine areas of the Brazilian state of Amapá and in French Guiana, particularly in the south-eastern border region, on the north bank of the Oyapock River. The Palikur Nation, or ''naoné'', ...
''
*Maritime
**''
Island Carib
The Kalinago, also known as the Island Caribs or simply Caribs, are an indigenous people of the Lesser Antilles in the Caribbean. They may have been related to the Mainland Caribs (Kalina) of South America, but they spoke an unrelated languag ...
''; ''
Garífuna
The Garifuna people ( or ; pl. Garínagu in Garifuna) are a people of mixed free African and indigenous American ancestry that originated in the Caribbean island of Saint Vincent and speak Garifuna, an Arawakan language, and Vincentian Cr ...
''
**''
Lokono
The Lokono or Arawak are an Arawak people native to northern coastal areas of South America. Today, approximately 10,000 Lokono live primarily along the coasts and rivers of Venezuela, Guyana, Suriname, Barbados and French Guiana. They speak t ...
''; ''
Wayuunaiki
Wayuu ( guc, Wayuunaiki ), or Guajiro, is a major Arawakan language spoken by 305,000 indigenous Wayuu people in northwestern Venezuela and northeastern Colombia on the Guajira Peninsula.
There are 200,000 speakers of Wayuu in Venezuela and 1 ...
Piapoco
Piapoco is an Arawakan language of Colombia and Venezuela.
A "Ponares" language is inferred from surnames, and may have been Piapoco or Achagua.
History
Piapoco is a branch of the Arawak language, which also includes Achagua and Tariana. P ...
Yucuna
Yucuna (Jukuna), also known as Matapi, Yucuna-Matapi, and Yukunais, is an Arawakan language spoken in several communities along the Mirití-Paraná River in Colombia. Extinct Guarú (Garú) was either a dialect or a closely related language.
...
Apurinã
The Apurinã, also called TheIpurinã, Ipurinãn, Kangite, Popukare ( endonym), are an indigenous people who live near the Purus River in western Brazil
Brazil ( pt, Brasil; ), officially the Federative Republic of Brazil (Portuguese: ), is ...
''
**''
Iñapari
Iñapari is a Peruvian village capital of the Tahuamanu Province in the Madre de Dios Region, located on the triple border of Bolivia, Brazil and Peru. It is connected to Brazil by the Brazil-Peru Integration Bridge, an international bridge cr ...
Nomatsiguenga
The Machiguenga (also Matsigenka, Matsigenga) are an indigenous peoples of the Americas, indigenous people who live in the high jungle, or''montaña'', area on the eastern slopes of the Andes and in the Amazon Basin jungle regions of southeastern ...
Nanti
Nanti is an Arawakan language spoken by approximately 250 people in southeastern Peruvian Amazonia, principally in a number of small communities located near the headwaters of the Camisea and Timpía Rivers. It belongs to the Kampan branch of ...
Terena
The Trans-European Research and Education Networking Association (TERENA, ) was a not-for-profit association of European national research and education networks (NRENs) incorporated in Amsterdam, The Netherlands. The association was originally f ...
''; '' Paunaka''; '' Mojeño (Trinitário, Ignaciano, Loretano, Javeriano)''
Phonological innovations characterizing some of the branches:
*''Maritime'': loss of medial Proto-Arawakan *-n-.
**''Lokono-Wayuu'': first person singular prefix *ta- replacing *nu-. Carvalho also reconstructs the suffix *-ja (possibly a deictic) and *kabɨnɨ ‘three’ as characteristic of this subgroup.
*''Campa'': lexical innovations such as *iNʧato ‘tree’, *-taki ‘bark’, *-toNki ‘bone’, etc. There are also typological innovations due to contact with Andean languages such as Quechua.
Ramirez (2020)
The internal classification of Arawakan by Henri Ramirez (2020) is as follows. This classification differs quite substantially from his previous classification (Ramirez 2001), but is very similar to the one proposed by Jolkesky (2016).
:12 subgroups consisting of 56 languages (29 living and 27 extinct) († = extinct)
* Japurá-Colombia (
Portuguese
Portuguese may refer to:
* anything of, from, or related to the country and nation of Portugal
** Portuguese cuisine, traditional foods
** Portuguese language, a Romance language
*** Portuguese dialects, variants of the Portuguese language
** Portu ...
Passé
Obsolescence is the state of being which occurs when an object, service, or practice is no longer maintained or required even though it may still be in good working order. It usually happens when something that is more efficient or less risky r ...
Piapoco
Piapoco is an Arawakan language of Colombia and Venezuela.
A "Ponares" language is inferred from surnames, and may have been Piapoco or Achagua.
History
Piapoco is a branch of the Arawak language, which also includes Achagua and Tariana. P ...
Yukuna
Yucuna (Jukuna), also known as Matapi, Yucuna-Matapi, and Yukunais, is an Arawakan language spoken in several communities along the Mirití-Paraná River in Colombia. Extinct Guarú (Garú) was either a dialect or a closely related language.
...
Antilles
The Antilles (; gcf, label=Antillean Creole, Antiy; es, Antillas; french: Antilles; nl, Antillen; ht, Antiy; pap, Antias; Jamaican Patois: ''Antiliiz'') is an archipelago bordered by the Caribbean Sea to the south and west, the Gulf of Mex ...
Palikur
The Palikur are an indigenous people located in the riverine areas of the Brazilian state of Amapá and in French Guiana, particularly in the south-eastern border region, on the north bank of the Oyapock River. The Palikur Nation, or ''naoné'', ...
Yawalapiti
The Yawalapiti (also Jaulapiti, Yaulapiti, or Yawalapití) are an indigenous tribe in the Amazonian Basin of Brazil. The name is also spelled Iaualapiti in Portuguese. The current village Yawalapiti is situated more to the south, between the Tu ...
Pauna
Pauna is a town and municipality in the Colombian Department of Boyacá, part of the subregion of the Western Boyacá Province
The Western Boyacá Province is a province of the Colombian Department of Boyacá. The province is formed by 15 ...
Iñapari
Iñapari is a Peruvian village capital of the Tahuamanu Province in the Madre de Dios Region, located on the triple border of Bolivia, Brazil and Peru. It is connected to Brazil by the Brazil-Peru Integration Bridge, an international bridge cr ...
Apurinã
The Apurinã, also called TheIpurinã, Ipurinãn, Kangite, Popukare ( endonym), are an indigenous people who live near the Purus River in western Brazil
Brazil ( pt, Brasil; ), officially the Federative Republic of Brazil (Portuguese: ), is ...
Pozuzo
Pozuzo is a village and district in the Oxapampa Province and Pasco Region of Peru. The village, at an elevation of , is situated near the left bank of the Huancabamba River which is renamed the Pozuzo River after it passes by the village. The po ...
Ucayali
The Ucayali River ( es, Río Ucayali, ) is the main headstream of the Amazon River. It rises about north of Lake Titicaca, in the Arequipa region of Peru and becomes the Amazon at the confluence of the Marañón close to Nauta city. The city ...
Below is a full list of Arawakan language varieties listed by Loukotka (1968), including names of unattested varieties.
;Island languages
*Taino / Nitaino - once spoken in the Conquest days on the
Greater Antilles
The Greater Antilles ( es, Grandes Antillas or Antillas Mayores; french: Grandes Antilles; ht, Gwo Zantiy; jam, Grieta hAntiliiz) is a grouping of the larger islands in the Caribbean Sea, including Cuba, Hispaniola, Puerto Rico, Jamaica, a ...
Islands of Cuba, Dominican Republic, Haiti, Puerto Rico and Jamaica. Dialects are:
**Taino of Haiti and Quisqueya - extinct language of the island were
Dominican Republic
The Dominican Republic ( ; es, República Dominicana, ) is a country located on the island of Hispaniola in the Greater Antilles archipelago of the Caribbean region. It occupies the eastern five-eighths of the island, which it shares with ...
and The Republic of Haiti.
**Taino of Cuba - once spoken on the island of Cuba; in the nineteenth century only in the villages of
Jiguaní
Jiguaní () is a town and municipality in the Granma Province of Cuba. It is located east of Bayamo, the provincial capital.
Overview
The municipality is divided into the barrios of Babiney, Baire, Bijagual, La Villa, Los Negros, Maffo, Rihito ...
,
Bayano
Bayano, also known as Ballano or Vaino, was an African enslaved by Spaniards who led the biggest slave revolts of 16th century Panama. Captured from the Yoruba community in West Africa, it has been argued that his name means ''idol''. Different ...
, and
Quivicán
Quivicán is a town and municipality in Mayabeque Province of Cuba. It is located in the south west of the province, bordering the Gulf of Batabanó. The name is of Taino origin (spelled '' Quibicán''). It was founded in 1700.
Geography
The mu ...
; now the last descendants speak only Spanish.
**Borinquen - once spoken on the island of
Puerto Rico
Puerto Rico (; abbreviated PR; tnq, Boriken, ''Borinquen''), officially the Commonwealth of Puerto Rico ( es, link=yes, Estado Libre Asociado de Puerto Rico, lit=Free Associated State of Puerto Rico), is a Caribbean island and unincorporated ...
.
**Yamaye - once spoken on the island of
Jamaica
Jamaica (; ) is an island country situated in the Caribbean Sea. Spanning in area, it is the third-largest island of the Greater Antilles and the Caribbean (after Cuba and Hispaniola). Jamaica lies about south of Cuba, and west of His ...
.
**Lucaya - once spoken on the
Bahamas
The Bahamas (), officially the Commonwealth of The Bahamas, is an island country within the Lucayan Archipelago of the West Indies in the North Atlantic. It takes up 97% of the Lucayan Archipelago's land area and is home to 88% of the ar ...
Islands.
*Eyed / Allouage - once spoken in the
Lesser Antilles
The Lesser Antilles ( es, link=no, Antillas Menores; french: link=no, Petites Antilles; pap, Antias Menor; nl, Kleine Antillen) are a group of islands in the Caribbean Sea. Most of them are part of a long, partially volcanic island arc bet ...
.
* - spoken on the eastern part of the island of
Trinidad
Trinidad is the larger and more populous of the two major islands of Trinidad and Tobago. The island lies off the northeastern coast of Venezuela and sits on the continental shelf of South America. It is often referred to as the southernmos ...
.
*Naparina - once spoken on the island of Trinidad. (Unattested.)
*Caliponau - language spoken by the women of the Carib tribes in the Lesser Antilles.
;Guiana language
*Arawak / Aruaqui / Luccumi / Locono - spoken in the Guianas. Dialects are:
**Western - spoken in Guyana.
**Eastern - spoken in French Guiana on the Curipi River and
Oyapoque River
The Oyapock or Oiapoque (; ; ) is a long river in South America that forms most of the border between the French overseas department of French Guiana and the Brazilian state of Amapá.
Course
The Oyapock runs through the Guianan moist for ...
.
;Central group
*Wapishana / Matisana / Wapityan / Uapixana - spoken on the
Tacutu River
The Takutu River (Takatu River, Tacutu River) is a river in the Upper Takutu-Upper Essequibo Region of Guyana and Roraima in Brazil. It forms part of the boundary between the two countries. The confluence of the Takutu and Uraricoera Rivers form ...
, Mahú River, and Surumú River, territory of Rio Branco, Brazil, and in the adjoining region in Guyana.
*Amariba - once spoken at the sources of the
Tacutu River
The Takutu River (Takatu River, Tacutu River) is a river in the Upper Takutu-Upper Essequibo Region of Guyana and Roraima in Brazil. It forms part of the boundary between the two countries. The confluence of the Takutu and Uraricoera Rivers form ...
and
Rupununi River
The Rupununi is a region in the south-west of Guyana, bordering the Brazilian Amazon. The Rupununi river, also known by the local indigenous peoples as ''Raponani'', flows through the Rupununi region. The name Rupununi originates from the word '' ...
, Guyana. (Unattested.)
*Atorai / Attaraye / Daurí - spoken between the
Rupununi River
The Rupununi is a region in the south-west of Guyana, bordering the Brazilian Amazon. The Rupununi river, also known by the local indigenous peoples as ''Raponani'', flows through the Rupununi region. The name Rupununi originates from the word '' ...
and Kuyuwini River, Guyana.
;Mapidian group
*Mapidian / Maotityan - spoken at the sources of the Apiniwau River, Guyana, now perhaps extinct.
*Mawakwa - once spoken on the
Mavaca River
Mavaca River is a river of Venezuela. It is part of the Orinoco River basin.
See also
*List of rivers of Venezuela
This is a list of rivers in Venezuela.
By drainage basin
This list is arranged by drainage basin, with respective tributaries ind ...
, Venezuela.
;Goajira group
*Goajira / Uáira - language spoken on the Goajira Peninsula in Colombia and Venezuela with two dialects, Guimpejegual and Gopujegual.
*Paraujano / Parancan / Parawogwan / Pará - spoken by a tribe of lake dwellers on Lake Maracaibo, Zulia state, Venezuela.
*Alile - once spoken on the Guasape River, state of Zulia, Venezuela. (Unattested.)
*Onota - once spoken between Lake Maracaibo and the
Palmar River
The Palmar River ( es, Rio El Palmar) is a river of Venezuela. It drains into Lake Maracaibo.
The Palmar River rises in the Serranía del Perijá.
In its lower reaches it flows through an area of the Catatumbo moist forests ecoregion.
It then flo ...
in the same region, Zulia state, Venezuela. (Unattested.)
*Guanebucán - extinct language once spoken on the Hacha River, department of Magdalena, Colombia. (Unattested.)
*Cosina / Coquibacoa - extinct language of a little known tribe of the Serranía Cosina, Goajira Peninsula, Colombia. (Unattested.)
;Caquetío group
*Caquetío - extinct language once spoken on the islands of Curaçao and Aruba near the Venezuelan coast, on the
Yaracuy River
The Yaracuy River is a river of Venezuela. It drains into the Caribbean Sea.
See also
*List of rivers of Venezuela
This is a list of rivers in Venezuela.
By drainage basin
This list is arranged by drainage basin, with respective tributaries ind ...
,
Portuguesa River
The Portuguesa River (Spanish: ''Río Portuguesa'', also ''Río la Portuguesa'', ''Río de la Portuguesa'') is a river of Venezuela. It is part of the Orinoco River basin, and is a tributary of the Apure River (which is, in turn, a tributary of th ...
, and Apure River, Venezuela. (only several words)
*Ajagua - once spoken on the
Tocuyo River
The Tocuyo River ( es, Río Tocuyo) is a river of Venezuela. It drains into the Caribbean Sea.
The river drains part of the Lara-Falcón dry forests ecoregion.
See also
*List of rivers of Venezuela
This is a list of rivers in Venezuela.
By d ...
near Carera, state of Lara, Venezuela. (only two words and patronyms.)
*Quinó - once spoken in the village of Lagunillas, state of Mérida, Venezuela. (Nothing.)
*Tororó / Auyama - once spoken in the village of San Cristóbal, state of Táchira. (Febres Cordero 1921, pp. 116–160 passim, only six words.)
*Aviamo - once spoken on the
Uribante River
The Uribante River is a river of Venezuela, a tributary of the Apure River.
The river is in the Orinoco basin.
It drains part of the southern slope of the Táchira depression.
See also
*List of rivers of Venezuela
This is a list of rivers i ...
, state of Táchira. (Unattested.)
*Tecua - once spoken on the Lengupa River and in the village of Teguas, department of Boyacá, Colombia. (Unattested.)
*Yaguai - once spoken on the Arichuna River, state of Apure, Venezuela. (Unattested.)
*Cocaima - once spoken between the Setenta River and Matiyure River, state of Apure, Venezuela. (Unattested.)
*Chacanta - once spoken on the Mucuchachi River, state of Mérida. (Unattested.)
*Caparo - once spoken on the
Caparo River
Caparo River ( es, Río Caparo) is a river of Venezuela
Venezuela (; ), officially the Bolivarian Republic of Venezuela ( es, link=no, República Bolivariana de Venezuela), is a country on the northern coast of South America, consisting of ...
, Santander, Colombia. (Unattested.)
*Támud - once spoken northeast of the Sagamoso River, Santander, Colombia. (Unattested.)
*Burgua - once spoken near San Camilo on the Burgua River, Santander, Colombia. (Unattested.)
*Cuite - once spoken on the Cuite River, Santander, Colombia. (Unattested.)
*Queniquea - once spoken in the same hill region in Colombia on the Pereno River. (Unattested.)
*Chucuna - once spoken between the
Manacacías River
Manacacías River is a river of Colombia. It is part of the Orinoco River basin.
See also
*List of rivers of Colombia
Atlantic Ocean
Amazon River Basin
* Amazon River
** Guainía River or Negro River
*** Vaupés River or Uaupés River
*** ...
and
Vichada River
The Vichada River ( es, Río Vichada, ) is a blackwater river in the country of Colombia, South America. It flows into the Orinoco River.
The eastward course of the Vichada is offset by an impact structure
An impact structure is a generally ...
, territories of Meta and Vichada, Colombia. (Unattested.)
*Guayupe - spoken on the Güejar River and
Ariari River
The Ariari River is a river of Colombia, located entirely within the Meta Department. Part of the Orinoco River basin, it merges with the Guayabero River to forms the Guaviare River
The Guaviare is a tributary of the Orinoco in Colombia. It f ...
, Meta territory.
*Sae - once spoken by the neighbors of the Guayupe tribe in the same region. (Unattested.)
*Sutagao - spoken once on the Pasca River and Sumapaz River, Meta territory. (Unattested.)
*Chocue / Choque - once spoken on the Herorú River and
Guayabero River
The Guayabero River is a river of Colombia. It is primarily located in the Meta Department, forming a portion of its border with the Guaviare Department. It is part of the Orinoco River basin. Its confluence with the Ariari River
The Ariari Ri ...
, Meta territory. (Unattested.)
*Eperigua - once spoken at the sources of the Güejar River and near San Juan de los Llanos, Meta territory. (Unattested.)
*Aricagua - once spoken in the state of Mérida, Venezuela. (Unattested.)
*Achagua - spoken on the Apure River and
Arauca River
The Arauca River ( es, Río Arauca) rises in the Andes Mountains of north-central Colombia and ends at the Orinoco in Venezuela. For part of its run it is the boundary between Colombia and Venezuela. The major city on its banks is Arauca, Col ...
in the department of Boyacá and territory of Meta, Colombia.
*Piapoco / Mitua / Dzáse - spoken on the
Guaviare River
The Guaviare is a tributary of the Orinoco in Colombia. It flows together with the upper Orinoco (until here also called Río Parágua), which it clearly surpasses in length (altogether about 1760 km) and water flow. Thus, the Guaviare is hydrolo ...
, territory of Vaupés, Colombia.
*Cabere / Cabre - once spoken on the Teviare River and
Zama River
Zama or Zamá may refer to:
Places
* Zama City, Alberta, Canada
* Zama Lake, Alberta, Canada
* Zama, Kanagawa, Japan
**Camp Zama, a United States Army base in Kanagawa, Japan
*Tulum or Zamá, Mexico
*Zama (Tunisia)
*Zama (Turkey)
* Zama, Mississip ...
, Vichada territory.
*Maniba / Camaniba - spoken by a little known tribe that lived on the middle course of the
Guaviare River
The Guaviare is a tributary of the Orinoco in Colombia. It flows together with the upper Orinoco (until here also called Río Parágua), which it clearly surpasses in length (altogether about 1760 km) and water flow. Thus, the Guaviare is hydrolo ...
, Vaupés territory, Colombia. (Unattested.)
*Amarizana - extinct language once spoken on the Vera River and Aguas Blancas River, territory of Meta.
;Maypure group
*Maypure - extinct language once spoken in the village of Maipures, Vichada territory, Colombia. Inhabitants now speak only Spanish.
*Avani / Abane - once spoken on the Auvana River and Tipapa River, Amazonas territory, Venezuela. (Gilij 1780-1784, vol. 3, p. 383, only six words.)
;Guinau group
*Baníva - language spoken on the
Orinoco River
The Orinoco () is one of the longest rivers in South America at . Its drainage basin, sometimes known as the Orinoquia, covers , with 76.3 percent of it in Venezuela and the remainder in Colombia. It is the fourth largest river in the wor ...
, especially in the village of San Fernando de Atabapo, Amazonas territory, Venezuela.
*Yavitero / Pareni / Yavitano - spoken on the
Atabapo River
Atabapo River is a river of Venezuela and Colombia. It forms the international boundary between the two countries for much of its length. It is part of the Orinoco River basin.
See also
*List of rivers of Venezuela
This is a list of rivers in Ve ...
in the village of Yavita.
;Guinau group
*Guinau / Inao / Guniare / Temomeyéme / Quinhau - once spoken at the sources of the Caura River and Merevari River, state of Bolívar, Venezuela, now perhaps extinct.
;Baré group
*Baré / Ihini / Arihini - spoken on the
Casiquiare River
The Casiquiare river () is a distributary of the upper Orinoco flowing southward into the Rio Negro, in Venezuela, South America. As such, it forms a unique natural canal between the Orinoco and Amazon river systems. It is the world's largest ...
, territory of Amazonas, Venezuela, and on the upper course of the
Negro River Río Negro (Spanish and Portuguese, 'Black River') may refer to:
Rivers
Brazil
* Rio Negro (Amazon), tributary of the Amazon River
* Rio Negro (Mato Grosso do Sul)
* Rio Negro (Paraná)
* Rio Negro (Rio de Janeiro)
* Rio Negro (Rondônia)
* ...
, state of Amazonas, Brazil.
*Uarequena - spoken on the
Guainía River
The Rio Negro ( pt, Rio Negro, br ; es, Río Negro} "''Black River''"), or Guainía as it is known in its upper part, is the largest left tributary of the Amazon River (accounting for about 14% of the water in the Amazon basin), the largest bl ...
, Vaupés territory, Colombia.
*Adzáneni / Adyána / Izaneni - spoken at the sources of the Caiarí River and on the Apui River, frontier of Colombia and Brazil.
*Carútana / Corecarú / Yauareté-tapuya - spoken on the frontier between Colombia and Brazil on the
Içana River
Içana River (río Isana/río Içana in Spanish and Portuguese) is a tributary of the Rio Negro in South America. Its source is in the Guainía Department of Colombia, where it is known as the Isana River. From its source, it flows mostly east u ...
.
*Katapolítani / Acayaca / Cadaupuritani - spoken on the
Içana River
Içana River (río Isana/río Içana in Spanish and Portuguese) is a tributary of the Rio Negro in South America. Its source is in the Guainía Department of Colombia, where it is known as the Isana River. From its source, it flows mostly east u ...
in the village of Tunuhy, Brazil.
*Siusí / Ualíperi-dákeni / Uereperidákeni - spoken on the lower course of the Caiarí River and
Içana River
Içana River (río Isana/río Içana in Spanish and Portuguese) is a tributary of the Rio Negro in South America. Its source is in the Guainía Department of Colombia, where it is known as the Isana River. From its source, it flows mostly east u ...
and on the middle course of the
Aiari River
Aiari River is a river of Amazonas state in north-western Brazil
Brazil ( pt, Brasil; ), officially the Federative Republic of Brazil (Portuguese: ), is the largest country in both South America and Latin America. At and with over 217 mi ...
, state of Amazonas, Brazil.
*Moriwene / Sucuriyú-tapuya - spoken on the
Içana River
Içana River (río Isana/río Içana in Spanish and Portuguese) is a tributary of the Rio Negro in South America. Its source is in the Guainía Department of Colombia, where it is known as the Isana River. From its source, it flows mostly east u ...
in the village of
Seringa Upita
''Hevea brasiliensis'', the Pará rubber tree, ''sharinga'' tree, seringueira, or most commonly, rubber tree or rubber plant, is a flowering plant belonging to the spurge family Euphorbiaceae originally native to the Amazon basin, but is now pan ...
, state of Amazonas, Brazil.
*Mapanai / Ira-tapuya - spoken on the
Içana River
Içana River (río Isana/río Içana in Spanish and Portuguese) is a tributary of the Rio Negro in South America. Its source is in the Guainía Department of Colombia, where it is known as the Isana River. From its source, it flows mostly east u ...
near Cachoeira Yandú, state of Amazonas.
*Hohodene / Huhúteni - spoken on the Cubate River, state of Amazonas.
*Maulieni / Káua-tapuya - spoken on the
Aiari River
Aiari River is a river of Amazonas state in north-western Brazil
Brazil ( pt, Brasil; ), officially the Federative Republic of Brazil (Portuguese: ), is the largest country in both South America and Latin America. At and with over 217 mi ...
, state of Amazonas.
;Ipéca group
*Ipéca / Kumada-mínanei / Baniva de rio Içana - spoken on the
Içana River
Içana River (río Isana/río Içana in Spanish and Portuguese) is a tributary of the Rio Negro in South America. Its source is in the Guainía Department of Colombia, where it is known as the Isana River. From its source, it flows mostly east u ...
near the village of San Pedro, frontier region of Brazil and Colombia.
*Payualiene / Payoariene / Pacu-tapuya - spoken in the same frontier region on the Arara-paraná River.
*Curipaco - spoken on the
Guainía River
The Rio Negro ( pt, Rio Negro, br ; es, Río Negro} "''Black River''"), or Guainía as it is known in its upper part, is the largest left tributary of the Amazon River (accounting for about 14% of the water in the Amazon basin), the largest bl ...
, territory of Amazonas, Venezuela.
*Kárro - spoken in the territory of Amazonas on the Puitana River.
*Kapité-Mínanei / Coatí-tapuya - spoken at the sources of the
Içana River
Içana River (río Isana/río Içana in Spanish and Portuguese) is a tributary of the Rio Negro in South America. Its source is in the Guainía Department of Colombia, where it is known as the Isana River. From its source, it flows mostly east u ...
, Vaupés territory, Colombia.
;Tariana group
*Tariana / Yavi - spoken in the villages of Ipanoré and Yauareté on the Caiarí River, Vaupés Territory, Colombia.
*Iyäine / Kumandene / Yurupary-tapuya - spoken in the same region north of the Tariana tribe. Now only Tucano is spoken. (Unattested.)
*Cauyari / Acaroa / Cabuyarí - once spoken on the Cananari River and on the middle course of the
Apaporis River
The Apaporis River is a river of the Vaupés Department, Colombia. It is a tributary of the Caquetá or Japurá River.
In the last stretch before the river joins the Caquetá it forms part of the boundary between Colombia and Brazil.
See also
...
, territory of Amazonas, Colombia. Now perhaps extinct.
;Mandauáca group
*Mandauáca / Maldavaca - spoken on the
Baria River
Baria River is a river of Venezuela. It is part of the Amazon River basin.
See also
*List of rivers of Venezuela
This is a list of rivers in Venezuela.
By drainage basin
This list is arranged by drainage basin, with respective tributaries ind ...
Pasimoni River
The Pasimoni River ( es, Rio Pasimoni) is a river in the state of Amazonas, Venezuela. It is a tributary of the Casiquiare canal, in turn a tributary of the Rio Negro.
The Pasimoni forms on the northern slope of the Cerro de la Neblina and flows ...
, Amazonas territory, Venezuela.
*Cunipúsana - once spoken in Amazonas territory on the
Siapa River
Siapa River is a river of Venezuela. It is part of the Amazon River basin.
See also
*List of rivers of Venezuela
This is a list of rivers in Venezuela.
By drainage basin
This list is arranged by drainage basin, with respective tributaries inde ...
. (Unattested.)
;Manáo group
*Manáo / Oremanao / Manoa - extinct language once spoken around the modern city of Manaus on the
Negro River Río Negro (Spanish and Portuguese, 'Black River') may refer to:
Rivers
Brazil
* Rio Negro (Amazon), tributary of the Amazon River
* Rio Negro (Mato Grosso do Sul)
* Rio Negro (Paraná)
* Rio Negro (Rio de Janeiro)
* Rio Negro (Rondônia)
* ...
, state of Amazonas, Brazil.
*Arina - extinct language once spoken on the middle course of the Marauiá River, Amazonas state. (Unattested.)
*Cariay / Carihiahy - extinct language once spoken between the
Negro River Río Negro (Spanish and Portuguese, 'Black River') may refer to:
Rivers
Brazil
* Rio Negro (Amazon), tributary of the Amazon River
* Rio Negro (Mato Grosso do Sul)
* Rio Negro (Paraná)
* Rio Negro (Rio de Janeiro)
* Rio Negro (Rondônia)
* ...
Negro River Río Negro (Spanish and Portuguese, 'Black River') may refer to:
Rivers
Brazil
* Rio Negro (Amazon), tributary of the Amazon River
* Rio Negro (Mato Grosso do Sul)
* Rio Negro (Paraná)
* Rio Negro (Rio de Janeiro)
* Rio Negro (Rondônia)
* ...
, and Araçá River, Amazonas. (Unattested.)
*Arauaqui - extinct language once spoken between the
Negro River Río Negro (Spanish and Portuguese, 'Black River') may refer to:
Rivers
Brazil
* Rio Negro (Amazon), tributary of the Amazon River
* Rio Negro (Mato Grosso do Sul)
* Rio Negro (Paraná)
* Rio Negro (Rio de Janeiro)
* Rio Negro (Rondônia)
* ...
and Uatuma River. A few descendants now speak only Lingua Geral or Portuguese. (Unattested.)
*Dapatarú - once spoken between the Uatuma River and Urubu River and on the island of Saracá, Amazonas. (Unattested.)
*Aniba - once spoken on the Aniba River and around Saracá lagoon. (Unattested.)
*Caboquena - once spoken on the Urubu River, Amazonas. (Unattested.)
*Caburichena - once spoken on the right bank of the
Negro River Río Negro (Spanish and Portuguese, 'Black River') may refer to:
Rivers
Brazil
* Rio Negro (Amazon), tributary of the Amazon River
* Rio Negro (Mato Grosso do Sul)
* Rio Negro (Paraná)
* Rio Negro (Rio de Janeiro)
* Rio Negro (Rondônia)
* ...
. (Unattested.)
*Seden - once spoken between the Uatuma River and
Negro River Río Negro (Spanish and Portuguese, 'Black River') may refer to:
Rivers
Brazil
* Rio Negro (Amazon), tributary of the Amazon River
* Rio Negro (Mato Grosso do Sul)
* Rio Negro (Paraná)
* Rio Negro (Rio de Janeiro)
* Rio Negro (Rondônia)
* ...
. (Unattested.)
;Uirina group
*Uirina - extinct language once spoken at the sources of the
Marari River
Marari River is a river of Amazonas (Brazilian state), Amazonas state in north-western Brazil.
See also
*List of rivers of Amazonas (Brazilian state), List of rivers of Amazonas
ReferencesBrazilian Ministry of Transport
Rivers of Amazonas (B ...
, territory of Rio Branco.
*Yabaána / Jabâ-ana / Hobacana - language of a tribe in the territory of Rio Branco, on the Marauiá River and
Cauaburi River
Cauaburi River is a river of Amazonas state in north-western Brazil
Brazil ( pt, Brasil; ), officially the Federative Republic of Brazil (Portuguese: ), is the largest country in both South America and Latin America. At and with over 217 ...
.
*Anauyá - spoken by a little known tribe on the Castaño River, territory of Amazonas, Venezuela.
;Chiriána group
*Chiriána / Barauána - spoken between the
Marari River
Marari River is a river of Amazonas (Brazilian state), Amazonas state in north-western Brazil.
See also
*List of rivers of Amazonas (Brazilian state), List of rivers of Amazonas
ReferencesBrazilian Ministry of Transport
Rivers of Amazonas (B ...
and Demini River, territory of Rio Branco.
;Yukúna group
*Yukúna - spoken on the Miritíparaná River, Amazonas territory, Colombia.
*Matapí - spoken in the same region, Amazonas territory, near Campoamor. (Unattested.)
*Guarú / Garú - spoken on the Mamurá River, Cuama River, and
Meta River
The Meta River is a major left tributary of the Orinoco River in eastern Colombia and southern Venezuela, South America. The Meta originates in the Eastern Ranges of the Andes and flows through the Meta Department, Colombia as the confluence of ...
, territory of Caquetá, Colombia.
;Resigaro group
*Resigaro / Rrah~nihin / Rosigaro - spoken by a few families on the Igaraparaná River near Casa Arana.
;Araicú group
*Marawa / Maragua - spoken in the nineteenth century between the
Juruá River
The Juruá River (Portuguese ''Rio Juruá''; Spanish ''Río Yuruá'') is a southern affluent river of the Amazon River west of the Purus River, sharing with this the bottom of the immense inland Amazon depression, and having all the characteristic ...
and Jutai River, now in a single village at the mouth of the
Juruá River
The Juruá River (Portuguese ''Rio Juruá''; Spanish ''Río Yuruá'') is a southern affluent river of the Amazon River west of the Purus River, sharing with this the bottom of the immense inland Amazon depression, and having all the characteristic ...
, Amazonas.
;Araicú group
*Araicú / Waraikú - extinct language once spoken at the sources of the Jandiatuba River and on the right bank of the Jutai River, Amazonas.
;Uainumá group
*Uainumá / Ajuano / Wainumá / Inabishana / Uainamby-tapuya / Uaypi - extinct language once spoken on the
Upi River
United Press International (UPI) is an American international news agency whose newswires, photo, news film, and audio services provided news material to thousands of newspapers, magazines, radio and television stations for most of the 20th ...
, a tributary of the
Içá River
The Putumayo River or Içá River ( es, Río Putumayo, pt, Rio Içá) is one of the tributaries of the Amazon River, southwest of and parallel to the Japurá River.
Course
The Putumayo River forms part of Colombia's border with Ecuador, as wel ...
, Amazonas.
*Mariaté / Muriaté - extinct language once spoken at the mouth of the
Içá River
The Putumayo River or Içá River ( es, Río Putumayo, pt, Rio Içá) is one of the tributaries of the Amazon River, southwest of and parallel to the Japurá River.
Course
The Putumayo River forms part of Colombia's border with Ecuador, as wel ...
.
;Jumana group
*Jumana / Shomana - extinct language once spoken on the Puruê River and Juami River, Amazonas state.
*Passé / Pazé - extinct language once spoken between the
Negro River Río Negro (Spanish and Portuguese, 'Black River') may refer to:
Rivers
Brazil
* Rio Negro (Amazon), tributary of the Amazon River
* Rio Negro (Mato Grosso do Sul)
* Rio Negro (Paraná)
* Rio Negro (Rio de Janeiro)
* Rio Negro (Rondônia)
* ...
Içá River
The Putumayo River or Içá River ( es, Río Putumayo, pt, Rio Içá) is one of the tributaries of the Amazon River, southwest of and parallel to the Japurá River.
Course
The Putumayo River forms part of Colombia's border with Ecuador, as wel ...
. The few descendants now speak only Portuguese.
;Cauishana group
*Cauishana / Kayuishana / Noll-hína - now spoken by a few families on the
Tocantins River
The Tocantins River ( pt, Rio Tocantins, link=no , , Parkatêjê: ''Pyti'' ɨˈti is a river in Brazil, the central fluvial artery of the country. In the Tupi language, its name means " toucan's beak" (''Tukã'' for "toucan" and ''Ti'' for "beak ...
and on Lake Mapari, Amazonas.
*Pariana - extinct language once spoken on the middle course of the Marauiá River. (Unattested.)
;Pre-Andine group
*Campa / Anti / Atzíri / Thampa / Kuruparia - spoken on the
Urubamba River
The Urubamba River or Vilcamayo River (possibly from Quechua ''Willkamayu'', for "sacred river") is a river in Peru. Upstream it is called Vilcanota River (possibly from Aymara ''Willkanuta'', for "house of the sun"). Within the La Convención ...
and
Ucayali River
The Ucayali River ( es, Río Ucayali, ) is the main headstream of the Amazon River. It rises about north of Lake Titicaca, in the Arequipa region of Peru and becomes the Amazon at the confluence of the Marañón close to Nauta city. The city of ...
, department of Cuzco, Peru.
*Machiganga / Ugunichire / Mashigango - spoken in the department of Cuzco on the
Mantaro River
The Mantaro River ( es, Río Mantaro, qu, Hatunmayu) is a long river running through the central region of Peru. Its Quechua name means "great river". The word "Mantaro" may be a word originally from the Asháninka language, who live downstream a ...
Urubamba River
The Urubamba River or Vilcamayo River (possibly from Quechua ''Willkamayu'', for "sacred river") is a river in Peru. Upstream it is called Vilcanota River (possibly from Aymara ''Willkanuta'', for "house of the sun"). Within the La Convención ...
, and
Paucartambo River Paucartambo may refer to:
* Paucartambo Province, Cusco region
* Paucartambo District, Paucartambo
* Paucartambo District, Pasco
* Paucartambo, Paucartambo
* Paucartambo, Pasco Province
{{geodis
Proto-Arawak reconstructions by Aikhenvald (2002):Aikhenvald, A. (2002). Language contact in Amazonia. Oxford University Press. Accessed fro DiACL 9 February 2020.
For lists of Proto-Arawakan reconstructions by Jolkesky (2016) and Ramirez (2019),Ramirez, Henri (2019). Enciclopédia das línguas arawak: acrescida de seis novas línguas e dois bancos de dados '. (in press) see the corresponding Portuguese article.
* Aikhenvald, Alexandra Y. (1999). The Arawak language family. In R. M. W. Dixon & A. Y. Aikhenvald (Eds.), ''The Amazonian languages''. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ; .
* de Goeje, C. H., (1928). ''The Arawak language of Guiana'', Verhandelingen der Koninklijke Akademie van Wetenschappen, Amsterdam, Afdeling Letterkunde, Nieuwe Reeks.
* Deniker, Joseph. (1900). ''The races of man: an outline of anthropology and ethnography''.
* Garifuna. (2015). In M. P. Lewis, G. F. Simmons, & C. D. Fennig (Eds.), ''Ethnologue: Languages of the world'' (18th ed.). Dallas, TX: SIL International.
* Kaufman, Terrence. (1990). Language history in South America: What we know and how to know more. In D. L. Payne (Ed.), ''Amazonian linguistics: Studies in lowland South American languages'' (pp. 13–67). Austin: University of Texas Press. .
* Kaufman, Terrence. (1994). The native languages of South America. In C. Mosley & R.E. Asher (Eds.), ''Atlas of the world's languages'' (pp. 46–76). London:
Routledge
Routledge () is a British multinational publisher. It was founded in 1836 by George Routledge, and specialises in providing academic books, journals and online resources in the fields of the humanities, behavioural science, education, law ...
.
* Nordhoff, Sebastian; Hammarström, Harald; Forkel, Robert; Haspelmath, Martin, eds. (2013). "Arawakan". ''Glottolog''. Leipzig: Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology.
* Rudes, Blair A "Pre-Columbian Links to the Caribbean: Evidence Connecting Cusabo to Taino" paper presented at ''Language Variety in the South III'' conference, Tuscaloosa, AL, 16 April 2004.
*
Further reading
* Campbell, Lyle. (1997). ''American Indian languages: The historical linguistics of Native America''. New York: Oxford University Press. .
* Derbyshire, Desmond C. (1992). Arawakan languages. In W. Bright (Ed.), ''International encyclopedia of linguistics'' (Vol. 1, pp. 102–105). New Oxford: Oxford University Press.
* Migliazza, Ernest C.; & Campbell, Lyle. (1988). ''Panorama general de las lenguas indígenas en América'' (pp. 223). Historia general de América (Vol. 10). Caracas: Instituto Panamericano de Geografía e Historia.
* Payne, David. (1991). A classification of Maipuran (Arawakan) languages based on shared lexical retentions. In D. C. Derbyshire & G. K. Pullum (Eds.), ''Handbook of Amazonian languages'' (Vol. 3, pp. 355–499). Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter.
* Solís Fonseca, Gustavo. (2003). Lenguas en la amazonía peruana. Lima: edición por demanda.
* Zamponi, Raoul. (2003). Maipure, Munich: Lincom Europa. .
;Lexicons
*Cadete, C. (1991). Dicionário Wapichana-Português/Português-Wapishana. São Paulo: Edições Loyola.
*Captain, D. M.; Captain, L. B. (2005). Diccionario Basico: Ilustrado; Wayuunaiki-Espanol ; Espanol-Wayuunaiki. Bogota: Edit. Fundación para el Desarrollo de los Pueblos Marginados.
*Corbera Mori, A. (2005). As línguas Waurá e Mehinakú do Brasil Central. In: A. S. A. C. Cabral & S. C. S. de Oliveira (eds.), Anais do IV Congresso Internacional da ABRALIN, 795-804. Brasília: Associação Brasileira de Lingüística, Universidade de Brasília.
*Couto, F. P. (2012). Contribuições para a fonética e fonologia da língua Manxineru (Aruák). Brasília: Universidade de Brasília. (Masters dissertation).
*Couto, F. P. (n.d.). Dados do manxineri. (Manuscript).
*Crevels, M.; Van Der Voort, H. (2008). The Guaporé-Mamoré region as a linguistic area. In: P. Muysken (ed.), From linguistic areas to areal linguistics (Studies in Language Companion Series, 90), 151-179. Amsterdam, Philadelphia: John Benjamins.
*de Créqui-Montfort, G.; Rivet, P. (1913b). Linguistique Bolivienne: La langue Lapaču ou Apolista. Zeitschrift für Ethnologie, 45:512-531.
*de Créqui-Montfort, G.; Rivet, P. (1913c). Linguistique bolivienne. La langue Saraveka. Journal de la Sociétè des Americanistes de Paris, 10:497-540.
*Dixon, R. M. W.; Aikhenvald, A. (eds.) (1999). The Amazonian Languages. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
*Duff-Tripp, M. (1998). Diccionario: Yanesha' (Amuesha) - Castellano. (Serie Lingüística Peruana, 47.) Lima: Inst. Lingüístico de Verano.
*Ekdahl, E. M.; Butler, N. E. (1969). Terêna dictionary. Brasília: SIL. ELIAS ORTIZ, S. (1945). Los Indios Yurumanguíes. Acta Americana, 4:10-25.
*Facundes, S. Da S. (2000). The Language of the Apurinã People of Brazil (Maipure/Arawak). University of New York at Buffalo. (Doctoral dissertation).
*Farabee, W. C. (1918). The Central Arawaks (University Museum Anthropological Publication, 9). Philadelphia: University Museum.
*Fargetti, C. M. (2001). Estudo Fonológico e Morfossintático da Língua Juruna. Campinas: UNICAMP. (Doctoral dissertation).
*Gill, W. (1993
970
Year 970 ( CMLXX) was a common year starting on Saturday (link will display the full calendar) of the Julian calendar, the 970th year of the Common Era (CE) and ''Anno Domini'' designations, the 970th year of the 1st millennium, the 70th yea ...
. Diccionario Trinitario-Castellano y Castellano-Trinitario. San Lorenzo de Mojos: Misión Evangélica Nuevas Tribus.
*Green, D.; Green, H. G. (1998). Yuwit kawihka dicionário Palikúr - Português. Belém: SIL.
*Jolkesky, M. P. V. (2016). Uma reconstrução do proto-mamoré-guaporé (família arawak). LIAMES, 16.1:7-37.
*Kindberg, L. D. (1980). Diccionario asháninca (Documento de Trabajo, 19). Yarinacocha: Summer Institute of Linguistics.
*Mehináku, M. (n.d.). Vocabulário mehinaku. (Manuscript).
*Mosonyi, J. C. (1987). El idioma yavitero: ensayo de gramática y diccionario. Caracas: Universidad Central de Venezuela. (Doctoral dissertation).
*Nies, J., et alii (1986). Diccionario Piro. Tokanchi Gikshijikowaka-Steno (Serie Lingüística Peruana, 22). Yarinacocha: Summer Institute of Linguistics.
*Ott, W.; Burke de Ott, R. (1983). Diccionario Ignaciano y Castellano: con apuntes gramaticales. Cochabamba: Inst. Lingüístico de Verano.
*Parker, S. (1995). Datos de la lengua Iñapari. (Documento de Trabajo, 27). Yarinacocha: Summer Institute of Linguistics.
*Parker, S. (2010). Chamicuro data: exhaustive list. (SIL Language and Culture Documentation and Description, 12). SIL International.
*Payne, D. L. (1991). A classification of Maipuran (Arawakian) languages based on shared lexical retentions. In: D. C. Derbyshire & G. K. Pullun (orgs.), Handbook of Amazonian languages, 355-499. The Hague: Mouton.
*Ramirez, H. (2001a). Dicionário Baniwa-Portugues. Manaus: Universidade do Amazonas.
*Ramirez, H. (2001b). Línguas Arawak da Amazônia Setentrional. Manaus: EDUA.
*Shaver, H. (1996). Diccionario nomatsiguenga-castellano, castellano-nomatsiguenga (Serie Linguística Peruana, 41). Pucallpa: Ministerio de Educación & Summer Institute of Linguistics.
*Snell, B. (1973). Pequeño diccionario machiguenga-castellano. Yarinacocha: SIL.
*Solís, G.; Snell, B. E. (2005). Tata onkantakera niagantsipage anianeegiku (Diccionario escolar Machiguenga). Lima, Perú: Summer Institute of Linguistics.
*Souza, I. (2008). Koenukunoe emo'u: A língua dos índios Kinikinau. Universidade Estadual de Campinas. (Doctoral dissertation).
*Suazo, S. (2011). Lila Garifuna: Diccionario Garífuna: Garifuna - Español. Tegucigalpa, Honduras: Litografía López.
*Trevor R. A. (1979). Vocabulario Resígaro (Documento de Trabajo, 16). Yarinacocha: Summer Institute of Linguistics.
*Tripp, M. D. (1998). Diccionario Yanesha' (Amuesha)-Castellano. (Serie Lingüística Peruana, 47). Lima: Ministerio de Educación / Summer Institute of Linguistics.
*Wapishana Language Project. (2000). Scholars's dictionary and grammar of the Wapishana language. Porto Velho: SIL International.
*Durbin, M.; Seijas, H. (1973). A Note on Panche, Pijao, Pantagora (Palenque), Colima and Muzo. International Journal of American Linguistics, 39:47-51.
;Data sets
*Thiago Costa Chacon. (2018, November 27). CLDF dataset derived from Chacon et al.'s "Diversity of Arawakan Languages" from 2019 (Version v1.0.1). Zenodo.
*Thiago Costa Chacon. (2018). CLDF dataset derived from Chacon's "Arawakan and Tukanoan contacts in Northwest Amazonia prehistory" from 2017 (Version v1.1) ata set Zenodo.
*Thiago Costa Chacon. (2018). CLDF dataset derived from Chacon's "Annotated Swadesh Lists for Arawakan Languages" from 2017 (Version v1.0.1) ata set Zenodo.
;Reconstructions
*Matteson, E. (1972). Proto Arawakan. In: E. Matteson et al. (eds.), ''Comparative Studies in Amerindian Languages'', 160-242. The Hague and Paris: Mouton.
*Noble, G. K. (1965). ''Proto-Arawakan and its descendants''. Publications of the Indiana University Research Center in Anthropology, Folklore, and Linguistics, 38. Bloomington: Indiana University Press.
*Valenti, D. M. (1986). ''A Reconstruction of the Proto-Arawakan Consonantal System.'' New York University. (Doctoral thesis).