Apocynaceae (from ''

Apocynum ''Apocynum'', commonly known as dogbane or Indian hemp, is a small genus of the flowering plant family Apocynaceae. Its name comes from Ancient Greek , from "away" and "dog", referring to dogbane (''Cionura erecta''), which was used to poiso ...

'', Greek for "dog-away") is a family of

flowering plant Flowering plants are plants that bear flowers and fruits, and form the clade Angiospermae (), commonly called angiosperms. The term "angiosperm" is derived from the Greek words ('container, vessel') and ('seed'), and refers to those plants th ...

s that includes

tree In botany, a tree is a perennial plant with an elongated stem, or trunk, usually supporting branches and leaves. In some usages, the definition of a tree may be narrower, including only woody plants with secondary growth, plants that are ...

shrub A shrub (often also called a bush) is a small-to-medium-sized perennial woody plant. Unlike herbaceous plants, shrubs have persistent woody stems above the ground. Shrubs can be either deciduous or evergreen. They are distinguished from trees ...

herb In general use, herbs are a widely distributed and widespread group of plants, excluding vegetables and other plants consumed for macronutrients, with savory or aromatic properties that are used for flavoring and garnishing food, for medicinal ...

stem succulent Stem succulents are fleshy succulent columnar shaped plants which conduct photosynthesis mainly through their stems rather than their leaves.Frerea indica, a Stem Succulent CAM Plant with Deciduous C₃ Leaves, Otto L. Lange and Margit Zuber, Oec ...

s, and

vine A vine (Latin ''vīnea'' "grapevine", "vineyard", from ''vīnum'' "wine") is any plant with a growth habit of trailing or scandent (that is, climbing) stems, lianas or runners. The word ''vine'' can also refer to such stems or runners themselv ...

s, commonly known as the dogbane family, because some taxa were used as dog poison Members of the family are native to the

Europe Europe is a large peninsula conventionally considered a continent in its own right because of its great physical size and the weight of its history and traditions. Europe is also considered a Continent#Subcontinents, subcontinent of Eurasia ...

an,

Asia Asia (, ) is one of the world's most notable geographical regions, which is either considered a continent in its own right or a subcontinent of Eurasia, which shares the continental landmass of Afro-Eurasia with Africa. Asia covers an area ...

Africa Africa is the world's second-largest and second-most populous continent, after Asia in both cases. At about 30.3 million km2 (11.7 million square miles) including adjacent islands, it covers 6% of Earth's total surface area ...

Australia Australia, officially the Commonwealth of Australia, is a Sovereign state, sovereign country comprising the mainland of the Australia (continent), Australian continent, the island of Tasmania, and numerous List of islands of Australia, sma ...

n, and

American American(s) may refer to: * American, something of, from, or related to the United States of America, commonly known as the "United States" or "America" ** Americans, citizens and nationals of the United States of America ** American ancestry, pe ...

tropics The tropics are the regions of Earth surrounding the Equator. They are defined in latitude by the Tropic of Cancer in the Northern Hemisphere at N and the Tropic of Capricorn in the Southern Hemisphere at S. The tropics are also referred to ...

subtropics The subtropical zones or subtropics are geographical and climate zones to the north and south of the tropics. Geographically part of the temperate zones of both hemispheres, they cover the middle latitudes from to approximately 35° north and ...

, with some temperate members. The former family Asclepiadaceae (now known as

Asclepiadoideae The Asclepiadoideae are a subfamily of plants in the family Apocynaceae. Formerly, they were treated as a separate family under the name Asclepiadaceae, e.g. by APG II, and known as the milkweed family. They form a group of perennial herbs, twin ...

) is considered a subfamily of Apocynaceae and contains 348 genera. A list of Apocynaceae genera may be found

here Here is an adverb that means "in, on, or at this place". It may also refer to: Software * Here Technologies, a mapping company * Here WeGo (formerly Here Maps), a mobile app and map website by Here Technologies, Here Television * Here TV (form ...

. Many species are tall trees found in

tropical forest Tropical forests (a.k.a. jungle) are forested landscapes in tropical regions: ''i.e.'' land areas approximately bounded by the tropic of Cancer and Capricorn, but possibly affected by other factors such as prevailing winds. Some tropical fores ...

s, but some grow in tropical dry (

xeric Deserts and xeric shrublands are a biome defined by the World Wide Fund for Nature. Deserts and xeric (ancient Greek xērós, “dry") shrublands form the largest terrestrial biome, covering 19% of Earth's land surface area. Ecoregions in this h ...

) environments. Also

perennial A perennial plant or simply perennial is a plant that lives more than two years. The term ('' per-'' + '' -ennial'', "through the years") is often used to differentiate a plant from shorter-lived annuals and biennials. The term is also wide ...

herbs from

temperate zone In geography, the temperate climates of Earth occur in the middle latitudes (23.5° to 66.5° N/S of Equator), which span between the tropics and the polar regions of Earth. These zones generally have wider temperature ranges throughout t ...

s occur. Many of these plants have milky

latex Latex is an emulsion (stable dispersion) of polymer microparticles in water. Latexes are found in nature, but synthetic latexes are common as well. In nature, latex is found as a milky fluid found in 10% of all flowering plants (angiosperms ...

, and many species are

poison Poison is a chemical substance that has a detrimental effect to life. The term is used in a wide range of scientific fields and industries, where it is often specifically defined. It may also be applied colloquially or figuratively, with a broa ...

ous if ingested, the family being rich in genera containing

alkaloids Alkaloids are a class of basic, naturally occurring organic compounds that contain at least one nitrogen atom. This group also includes some related compounds with neutral and even weakly acidic properties. Some synthetic compounds of similar st ...

and

cardiac glycosides Cardiac glycosides are a class of organic compounds that increase the output force of the heart and decrease its rate of contractions by inhibiting the cellular sodium-potassium ATPase pump. Their beneficial medical uses are as treatments for co ...

, those containing the latter often finding use as

arrow poison Arrow poisons are used to poison arrow heads or darts for the purposes of hunting and warfare. They have been used by indigenous peoples worldwide and are still in use in areas of South America, Africa and Asia. Notable examples are the poisons se ...

s. Some genera of Apocynaceae, such as '' Adenium'', bleed clear sap without latex when damaged, and others, such as ''

Pachypodium ''Pachypodium'' is a genus of succulent spine-bearing trees and shrubs, native to Madagascar and Africa. It belongs to the family Apocynaceae. Genus characteristics All ''Pachypodium'' are succulent plants that exhibit, to varying degrees, t ...

'', have milky latex apart from their sap.

Taxonomy

As of 2012, the family was described as comprising some 5,100 species, in five subfamilies:Nazia Nazar, David J. Goyder, James J. Clarkson, Tariq Mahmood and Mark W. Chase, 2013, "The taxonomy and systematics of ''Apocynaceae'': Where we stand in 2012," '' Bot. J. Linn. Soc.,'' 171(3, March), pp. 482–490, se

accessed 22 June 2015. *

Apocynoideae Apocynoideae is a subfamily of the flowering plant family Apocynaceae (order Gentianales). It contains about 78 genera with roughly 860 species. Several genera are of pharmacological interest - notably those - such as Strophanthus - which have f ...

Burnett, 1835 *

Burnett, 1835 (incorporating the Asclepiadaceae) *

Periplocoideae Periplocoideae is a subfamily of the dogbane plant family, Apocynaceae. It was not divided into Tribe (biology), tribes as of 2014. Genera In 2014, the subfamily was Circumscription (taxonomy), circumscribed to contain the following genera: *''A ...

Endl., 1838 *

Rauvolfioideae Rauvolfioideae is a subfamily of the flowering plant family Apocynaceae (order Gentianales). Many species are woody lianas, others are shrubs or perennial herbs. Tribes and genera *Tribe Aspidospermateae Miers, 1878 **'' Aspidosperma'' Mart. & ...

Kostel., 1834 *

Secamonoideae Secamonoideae is a subfamily of the dogbane family, Apocynaceae. Genera *'' Calyptranthera'' Klack., 1996 *'' Genianthus'' Hook. f., 1883 *'' Goniostemma'' Wight, 1834 *'' Pervillaea'' Decne., 1844 *''Secamone ''Secamone'' is a genus of plan ...

Endl., 1838 The former family Asclepiadaceae is included in Apocynaceae according to the Angiosperm Phylogeny Group III (

APG III APG is an abbreviation with several different meanings: * Aberdeen Proving Ground, a United States Army installation in Aberdeen, Maryland, also ** Phillips Army Airfield, the airfield of the above, from its IATA airport code * Aboriginal Provisiona ...

) modern, largely molecular-based system of flowering plant taxonomy. An updated classification, including 366 genera, 25 tribes and 49 subtribes, was published in 2014.

Distribution and habitat

Species in this family are distributed mainly in tropical regions: *In the

s and

swamp A swamp is a forested wetland.Keddy, P.A. 2010. Wetland Ecology: Principles and Conservation (2nd edition). Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK. 497 p. Swamps are considered to be transition zones because both land and water play a role in ...

s of

Indomalaya The Indomalayan realm is one of the eight biogeographic realms. It extends across most of South and Southeast Asia and into the southern parts of East Asia. Also called the Oriental realm by biogeographers, Indomalaya spreads all over the Indi ...

: small to very tall

evergreen In botany, an evergreen is a plant which has foliage that remains green and functional through more than one growing season. This also pertains to plants that retain their foliage only in warm climates, and contrasts with deciduous plants, which ...

s up to tall, often with buttress roots, such as ''

Alstonia ''Alstonia'' is a widespread genus of evergreen trees and shrubs, of the family Apocynaceae. It was named by Robert Brown in 1811, after Charles Alston (1685–1760), professor of botany at Edinburgh from 1716 to 1760. The type species ''Alsto ...

'' and '' Dyera'' *In northern Australia: small evergreen trees such as ''

'', '' Alyxia'', ''

Cerbera ''Cerbera'' is a genus of evergreen small trees or shrubs, native to tropical Asia, Australia, Madagascar, and various islands in the Indian Ocean and the western Pacific Ocean. Three trees of this genus are mangroves, '' Cerbera floribunda'', ...

'' and ''

Ochrosia ''Ochrosia'' is a genus of flowering plants, first described in 1789. It is in the family Apocynaceae, native to Southeast Asia, Australia, and various islands of the Indian and Pacific Oceans. ;Species # '' Ochrosia ackeringae'' – Indonesia ...

'' *In deciduous forests of Africa, India and

Indo-China Mainland Southeast Asia, also known as the Indochinese Peninsula or Indochina, is the continental portion of Southeast Asia. It lies east of the Indian subcontinent and south of Mainland China and is bordered by the Indian Ocean to the west an ...

: smaller trees such as ''

Carissa ''Carissa'' is a genus of shrubs or small trees native to tropical and subtropical regions of Africa, Australia and Asia. Until recently about 100 species were listed, but most of them have been relegated to the status of synonyms or assigned ...

'', ''

Wrightia ''Wrightia'' is a genus of flowering plants in the family Apocynaceae, first described as a genus in 1810. It native to tropical Africa, China, the Indian Subcontinent, Southeast Asia, Papuasia, and Australia. The species are all small trees or ...

'' and '' Holarrhena'' *In tropical America, India, Myanmar and Malaya: evergreen trees and shrubs, such as ''

Rauvolfia ''Rauvolfia'' (sometimes spelled ''Rauwolfia'') is a genus of evergreen trees and shrubs, commonly known as devil peppers, in the family Apocynaceae. The genus is named to honor Leonhard Rauwolf. The genus can mainly be found in tropical reg ...

'', ''

Tabernaemontana ''Tabernaemontana'' is a genus of flowering plants in the family Apocynaceae. It has a pan-tropical distribution, found in Asia, Africa, Australia, North America, South America, and a wide assortment of oceanic islands. These plants are evergreen ...

'' and '' Acokanthera'' *In Central America: ''

Plumeria ''Plumeria'' (), known as frangipani, is a genus of flowering plants in the subfamily Rauvolfioideae, of the family Apocynaceae. Most species are deciduous shrubs or small trees. The species variously are endemic to Mexico, Central America, and ...

'', or the frangipani, with its waxy white or pink flowers and a sweet scent *In South America, Africa and Madagascar: many

liana A liana is a long- stemmed, woody vine that is rooted in the soil at ground level and uses trees, as well as other means of vertical support, to climb up to the canopy in search of direct sunlight. The word ''liana'' does not refer to a ta ...

s, such as ''

Landolphia ''Landolphia'' is a genus of flowering plants in the family Apocynaceae first described as a genus in 1806. They take the form of vines that scramble over host trees. ''Landolphia'' is native to tropical Africa Africa is the world's s ...

'' *In the Mediterranean region: ''

Nerium ''Nerium oleander'' ( ), most commonly known as oleander or nerium, is a shrub or small tree cultivated worldwide in temperate and subtropical areas as an ornamental and landscaping plant. It is the only species currently classified in the ge ...

'', with the well-known oleander or be-still tree (''

Nerium oleander ''Nerium oleander'' ( ), most commonly known as oleander or nerium, is a shrub or small tree cultivated worldwide in temperate and subtropical areas as an ornamental and landscaping plant. It is the only species currently classified in the ge ...

'') *The only genera found in temperate

away from the Mediterranean are ''

Vinca ''Vinca'' (; Latin: ''vincire'' "to bind, fetter") is a genus of flowering plants in the family Apocynaceae, native to Europe, northwest Africa and southwest Asia. The English name periwinkle is shared with the related genus ''Catharanthus'' (an ...

'' (Apocynoideae) and ''

Vincetoxicum ''Vincetoxicum'' is a genus of plants in the family Apocynaceae. Although the species in ''Vincetoxicum'' have sometimes been included in ''Cynanchum'', chemical and molecular evidence shows that ''Vincetoxicum'' is more closely related to ''Tylo ...

'' (Asclepiadoideae). Also ''

Asclepias syriaca ''Asclepias syriaca'', commonly called common milkweed, butterfly flower, silkweed, silky swallow-wort, and Virginia silkweed, is a species of flowering plant. It is native to southern Canada and much of the United States east of the Rocky Moun ...

'' is an invasive weed (e. g., in many areas of

Ukraine Ukraine ( uk, Україна, Ukraïna, ) is a country in Eastern Europe. It is the second-largest European country after Russia, which it borders to the east and northeast. Ukraine covers approximately . Prior to the ongoing Russian inv ...

). *In North America: ''

'', dogbane or Indian hemp, including ''

Apocynum cannabinum ''Apocynum cannabinum'' (dogbane, amy root, hemp dogbane, prairie dogbane, Indian hemp, rheumatism root, or wild cotton) is a perennial herbaceous plant that grows throughout much of North America—in the southern half of Canada and throughou ...

'', a traditional source of fiber. Also the bluestars, ''

Amsonia ''Amsonia'' is a genus of flowering plants in the dogbane family, Apocynaceae, first described as a genus in 1788. It is native primarily to North America with one species in East Asia and another in the eastern Mediterranean The Mediterra ...

'', herbaceous perennials of upright habit, grown as ornamental plants for their attractive flowers. *In continental southern Africa (Angola, Botswana, Eswatini, Mozambique, South Africa, and Zimbabwe) and Madagascar, except for the humid evergreen forest of the eastern side of Madagascar, and never above for the entire island: ''

'' and ''

Fockea ''Fockea'' is a genus of succulent scrubs native to southern Africa Africa is the world's second-largest and second-most populous continent, after Asia in both cases. At about 30.3 million km2 (11.7 million square miles) ...

Description

Growth pattern

The dogbane/milkweed family includes

annual plant An annual plant is a plant that completes its life cycle, from germination to the production of seeds, within one growing season, and then dies. The length of growing seasons and period in which they take place vary according to geographical ...

s, perennial herbs,

s, woody shrubs,

s, or

s. Most exude a milky latex when cut.

Leaves and stems

Leaves A leaf (plural, : leaves) is any of the principal appendages of a vascular plant plant stem, stem, usually borne laterally aboveground and specialized for photosynthesis. Leaves are collectively called foliage, as in "autumn foliage", wh ...

are

simple Simple or SIMPLE may refer to: *Simplicity, the state or quality of being simple Arts and entertainment * ''Simple'' (album), by Andy Yorke, 2008, and its title track * "Simple" (Florida Georgia Line song), 2018 * "Simple", a song by Johnn ...

. They may appear one at a time (singly) with each occurrence on alternating sides of the stem (

alternate Alternative or alternate may refer to: Arts, entertainment and media * Alternative (''Kamen Rider''), a character in the Japanese TV series ''Kamen Rider Ryuki'' * ''The Alternative'' (film), a 1978 Australian television film * ''The Alternative ...

),Apocynaceae, Thomas Rosatti, Jepson Herbarium
/ref> but usually occur in pairs (and rarely in

whorl A whorl ( or ) is an individual circle, oval, volution or equivalent in a whorled pattern, which consists of a spiral or multiple concentric objects (including circles, ovals and arcs). Whorls in nature File:Photograph and axial plane floral ...

s). When paired, they occur on opposite sides of the stem (opposite), with each pair occurring at an angle rotated 90° to the pair below it (

decussate Decussation is used in biological contexts to describe a crossing (due to the shape of the Roman numeral for ten, an uppercase 'X' (), ). In Latin anatomical terms, the form is used, e.g. . Similarly, the anatomical term chiasma is named aft ...

). There is no

stipule In botany, a stipule is an outgrowth typically borne on both sides (sometimes on just one side) of the base of a leafstalk (the petiole). Stipules are considered part of the anatomy of the leaf of a typical flowering plant, although in many speci ...

(a small leaf-like structure at the base of the leaf stem), or stipules are small and sometimes fingerlike.

Inflorescence and fruit

Flower A flower, sometimes known as a bloom or blossom, is the reproductive structure found in flowering plants (plants of the division Angiospermae). The biological function of a flower is to facilitate reproduction, usually by providing a mechani ...

s have radial symmetry (

actinomorphic Floral symmetry describes whether, and how, a flower, in particular its perianth, can be divided into two or more identical or mirror-image parts. Uncommonly, flowers may have no axis of symmetry at all, typically because their parts are spirall ...

), and are borne in heads that are cymes or

raceme A raceme ( or ) or racemoid is an unbranched, indeterminate type of inflorescence bearing flowers having short floral stalks along the shoots that bear the flowers. The oldest flowers grow close to the base and new flowers are produced as the s ...

s, or are solitary in axils. They are perfect (bisexual), with a synsepalous, five-lobed calyx united into a tube at the base. Inflorescences are terminal or axillary. Five

petal Petals are modified Leaf, leaves that surround the reproductive parts of flowers. They are often advertising coloration, brightly colored or unusually shaped to attract pollinators. All of the petals of a flower are collectively known as the ''c ...

s are united into a tube with four or five epipetalous stamens. The

style Style is a manner of doing or presenting things and may refer to: * Architectural style, the features that make a building or structure historically identifiable * Design, the process of creating something * Fashion, a prevailing mode of clothing ...

head is swollen. The pollen is transported in foam. The

ovary The ovary is an organ in the female reproductive system that produces an ovum. When released, this travels down the fallopian tube into the uterus, where it may become fertilized by a sperm. There is an ovary () found on each side of the body. ...

is usually superior, ''bicarpellary,'' and ''apocarpous,'' with a common fused style and stigma. (Fig. 5. and Fig.6. in the illustration of '' Rhigospira quadrangularis'' show a typical tripartite style which divides into three zones (specialised for pollen deposition, viscin secretion, and the reception of pollen) The fruit is a

drupe In botany, a drupe (or stone fruit) is an indehiscent fruit in which an outer fleshy part (exocarp, or skin, and mesocarp, or flesh) surrounds a single shell (the ''pit'', ''stone'', or '' pyrena'') of hardened endocarp with a seed (''kernel'') ...

, a

berry A berry is a small, pulpy, and often edible fruit. Typically, berries are juicy, rounded, brightly colored, sweet, sour or tart, and do not have a stone or pit, although many pips or seeds may be present. Common examples are strawberries, raspb ...

, a capsule, or a (frequently paired) follicle. The seeds are often winged or have appendages of long silky hairs.

Ecology

Several genera are preferred larval host plants for the

Queen Butterfly The queen butterfly (''Danaus gilippus'') is a North and South American butterfly in the family Nymphalidae with a wingspan of . It is orange or brown with black wing borders and small white forewing spots on its dorsal wing surface, and reddish ...

(''Danaus gilippus'').

Toxicity

Many species of plants from the family Apocynaceae have some toxicity, with some being extremely poisonous if parts are ingested, or if they are not handled properly. Genera containing

cardiac glycoside Cardiac glycosides are a class of organic compounds that increase the output force of the heart and decrease its rate of contractions by inhibiting the cellular sodium-potassium ATPase pump. Their beneficial medical uses are as treatments for c ...

s— ''

'', ''

Asclepias ''Asclepias'' is a genus of herbaceous, perennial, flowering plants known as milkweeds, named for their latex, a milky substance containing cardiac glycosides termed cardenolides, exuded where cells are damaged. Most species are toxic to humans ...

'', ''

Cascabela ''Cascabela'' is a genus of flowering plants in the Apocynum, dogbane family, Apocynaceae. It is native to Mexico, Central America, and South America.Alvarado-Cárdenas, L.O. & Ocheterena, H. (2007). A phylogenetic analysis of the Cascabelia-Thev ...

'', ''

Strophanthus ''Strophanthus'' is a genus of flowering plants in the family Apocynaceae, first described as a genus in 1802. It is native primarily to tropical Africa, extending to South Africa, with a few species in Asia from southern India to New Guinea and ...

,'' '' Acokanthera'', ''

,'' '' Thevetia,'' etc.—have therapeutic ranges, but are often associated with accidental poisonings, in many cases lethal (see below).

Alkaloid Alkaloids are a class of basic, naturally occurring organic compounds that contain at least one nitrogen atom. This group also includes some related compounds with neutral and even weakly acidic properties. Some synthetic compounds of similar ...

-producing species like ''

Rauvolfia serpentina ''Rauvolfia serpentina'', the Indian snakeroot, devil pepper, or serpentine wood, is a species of flower in the milkweed family Apocynaceae. It is native to the Indian subcontinent and East Asia (from India to Indonesia). ''Rauvolfia'' is a pe ...

,'' ''

Catharanthus roseus ''Catharanthus roseus'', commonly known as bright eyes, Cape periwinkle, graveyard plant, Madagascar periwinkle, old maid, pink periwinkle, rose periwinkle, is a species of flowering plant in the family Apocynaceae. It is native and endemic to M ...

,'' and ''

Tabernanthe iboga ''Tabernanthe iboga'' (iboga) is an evergreen rainforest shrub native to Central Africa. A member of the Apocynaceae family indigenous to Gabon, the Democratic Republic of Congo, and the Republic of Congo, it is cultivated across Central Africa ...

'' are likewise the source of compounds with therapeutic ranges, but which have significant associated toxicities if not taken in appropriate doses and in controlled fashion. (See below)

Uses

Several members of the family Apocynaceae have had economic uses in the past. Several are sources of important

natural product A natural product is a natural compound or substance produced by a living organism—that is, found in nature. In the broadest sense, natural products include any substance produced by life. Natural products can also be prepared by chemical syn ...

s—pharmacologic tool compounds and drug research candidates, and in some cases actual

prescription drugs A prescription drug (also prescription medication or prescription medicine) is a pharmaceutical drug that legally requires a medical prescription to be dispensed. In contrast, over-the-counter drugs can be obtained without a prescription. The rea ...

Cardiac glycoside Cardiac glycosides are a class of organic compounds that increase the output force of the heart and decrease its rate of contractions by inhibiting the cellular sodium-potassium ATPase pump. Their beneficial medical uses are as treatments for c ...

s, which affect heart function, are a ready example. Genera studied and known to contain such glycosides include '' Acokanthera'', ''

'', ''

'', '' Thevetia'' and ''

.'' ''

'' (Indian snakeroot) contains the alkaloid

reserpine Reserpine is a drug that is used for the treatment of high blood pressure, usually in combination with a thiazide diuretic or vasodilator. Large clinical trials have shown that combined treatment with reserpine plus a thiazide diuretic reduces m ...

, which has been used as an antihypertensive and an antipsychotic drug but its adverse effects limit its clinical use. ''

'' yields alkaloids used in the treatment of cancer. ''

Voacanga africana ''Voacanga africana'' is a small tree native to tropical Africa belonging to the family Apocynaceae that grows to in height and bears leaves that are up to in length. The yellow or white flowers are succeeded by paired, follicular, dehiscent ...

, and

Tabernaemontana undulata ''Tabernaemontana undulata'', the becchete or bëcchëte (pronounced b'-chéw-teh, a Matis and Matsés word for a medicinal plant) is a plant species in the family Apocynaceae. It occurs in the Amazon rainforest. Effects When applied directly ...

'' contain the alkaloid

ibogaine Ibogaine is a naturally occurring psychoactive substance found in plants in the family Apocynaceae such as ''Tabernanthe iboga'', ''Voacanga africana'', and ''Tabernaemontana undulata''. It is a psychedelic with dissociative properties. Prel ...

, which is a

psychedelic drug Psychedelics are a subclass of hallucinogenic drugs whose primary effect is to trigger non-ordinary states of consciousness (known as psychedelic experiences or "trips").Pollan, Michael (2018). ''How to Change Your Mind: What the New Science o ...

which may help with drug addiction, but which has significant adverse effects, with ibogaine being both cardiotoxic and neurotoxic.

Ajmalicine Ajmalicine, also known as δ-yohimbine or raubasine, is an antihypertensive drug used in the treatment of high blood pressure. It has been marketed under numerous brand names including Card-Lamuran, Circolene, Cristanyl, Duxil, Duxor, Hydroxysarp ...

, an

alkaloid Alkaloids are a class of basic, naturally occurring organic compounds that contain at least one nitrogen atom. This group also includes some related compounds with neutral and even weakly acidic properties. Some synthetic compounds of similar ...

found in ''

'' spp., ''

'', and ''

Mitragyna speciosa ''Mitragyna speciosa'' (commonly known as kratom, an herbal leaf from a tree of the Rubiaceae family, ) is a tropical evergreen tree in the coffee family native to Southeast Asia. It is indigenous to Thailand, Indonesia, Malaysia, Myanmar, and ...

'', is an

antihypertensive Antihypertensives are a class of drugs that are used to treat hypertension (high blood pressure). Antihypertensive therapy seeks to prevent the complications of high blood pressure, such as stroke and myocardial infarction. Evidence suggests tha ...

drug A drug is any chemical substance that causes a change in an organism's physiology or psychology when consumed. Drugs are typically distinguished from food and substances that provide nutritional support. Consumption of drugs can be via insuffla ...

used in the treatment of high

blood pressure Blood pressure (BP) is the pressure of circulating blood against the walls of blood vessels. Most of this pressure results from the heart pumping blood through the circulatory system. When used without qualification, the term "blood pressure" r ...

. Many genera are grown as

ornamental plant Ornamental plants or garden plants are plants that are primarily grown for their beauty but also for qualities such as scent or how they shape physical space. Many flowering plants and garden varieties tend to be specially bred cultivars that i ...

s, including ''

'' (bluestar), ''

'' (oleander), ''

'' (periwinkle), ''

'' (Natal plum), ''

Allamanda ''Allamanda'' is a genus of flowering plants in the family Apocynaceae. They are native to the Americas, where they are distributed from Mexico to Argentina. Some species are familiar as ornamental plants cultivated for their large, colorful flow ...

'' (golden trumpet), ''

'' (frangipani), '' Thevetia'', ''

Mandevilla ''Mandevilla'' is a genus of tropical and subtropical flowering vines belonging to the family Apocynaceae. It was first described as a genus in 1840. A common name is rocktrumpet. ''Mandevilla'' species are native to the Southwestern United S ...

'' (Savannah flower), and '' Adenium'' (desert-rose). In addition, the genera ''

'', '' Carpodinus'', and '' Mascarenhasia'' have been used as commercial sources of inferior rubber. (See

Congo rubber ''Landolphia owariensis'' is a species of liana from the family Apocynaceae found in tropical Africa. Latex can be extracted from this plant for the manufacture of natural rubber. Other names for this vine are eta, the white rubber vine and the ...

). There are limited dietary uses of plants from this family. The flower of ''

Fernaldia pandurata ''Fernaldia pandurata'' (common name: loroco ) is a vine with edible flowers, widespread in El Salvador, Guatemala, and other countries in Central America.Morales, J.F. (2009). Estudios en las Apocynaceae neotropicales XXXIX: revisión de las ...

'' (common name: ') is edible. ''

'' (Natal plum) produces an edible fruit, but all other parts of the plant are poisonous. The genus ''

'' was reportedly used as a source of fiber by Native Americans. The aromatic fruit juice from '' Saba comorensis'' (syn. ''Landolphia comorensis'', the Bungo or Mbungo fruit) is used as a drink. Finally, ethnopharmacologic and ethnotoxicologic uses are also known. The roots of ''

'' and certain ''

Voacanga ''Voacanga'' is a genus of plants in the family Apocynaceae found in Africa, Southeast Asia, New Guinea, and Australia. the World Checklist of Selected Plant Families recognises 13 species:Search for "Voacanga", ;Species # '' Voacanga africana ...

'' species have traditionally been used ceremonially as hallucinogens in Africa. The

-type alkaloids responsible for the psychoactivity of these plants have been studied with regard to the treatment of drug addiction. The juice of '' Acokanthera'' species such as '' A. venenata'' and the milky juice of the

Namibia Namibia (, ), officially the Republic of Namibia, is a country in Southern Africa. Its western border is the Atlantic Ocean. It shares land borders with Zambia and Angola to the north, Botswana to the east and South Africa to the south and ea ...

n ''

'' have been used as poison for arrow tips. Many species are ornamental in gardens or as houseplants.

Gallery

Flowers

File:Acokanthera oblongifolia 2445.JPG, ''

Acokanthera oblongifolia ''Acokanthera oblongifolia'' (commonly known as African wintersweet, dune poison bush, Hottentot's poison, poison arrow plant or wintersweet) is a plant in the family Apocynaceae. It grows as an evergreen shrub or small tree up to tall. Its frag ...

'' File:Adenium obesum3.jpg, ''

Adenium obesum ''Adenium obesum'' is a poisonous species of flowering plant belonging to the tribe Nerieae of the subfamily Apocynoideae of the dogbane family, Apocynaceae. It is native to the Sahel regions south of the Sahara (from Mauritania and Senegal to ...

'' File:Allamanda cathartica flowers 2.JPG, '' Allamanda cathartica'' File:糖膠樹(黑板樹) Alstonia scholaris -香港中央圖書館 Hong Kong Central Library- (9237370435).jpg, ''

Alstonia scholaris ''Alstonia scholaris'', commonly called blackboard tree, Scholar Tree, Milkwood or devil's tree in English, is an evergreen tropical tree in the Dogbane Family (Apocynaceae). It is native to southern China, tropical Asia (mainly the Indian subcon ...

'' File:Alyxia.oliviformis1web.jpg, ''

Alyxia oliviformis ''Alyxia stellata'', known as ''maile'' in Hawaiian, is a species of flowering plant in the dogbane family, ''Apocynaceae'', that is native to Hawaii. It grows as either a twining liana, scandent shrub, or small erect shrub, and is one of the ...

'' File:Amsonia tabernaemontana kz01.jpg, '' Amsonia tabernaemontana'' File:Ancylobothrys capensis08.jpg, '' Ancylobothrys capensis'' File:Aspidosperma quebracho-blanco - Köhler–s Medizinal-Pflanzen-017.jpg, ''

Aspidosperma quebracho-blanco ''Aspidosperma quebracho-blanco'', commonly known as Quebracho blanco, kebrako, or white quebracho, is a South American tree species, native to Brazil, northern Argentina, Bolivia, Paraguay, and Uruguay. It must not be confused with other specie ...

'' illustration in Köhler's Medizinal-Pflanzen File:Caralluma burchardii IMGP8282.JPG, '' Apteranthes burchardii'' File:Asclepias curassavica 1854.jpg, '' Asclepias curassavica'' File:Caralluma acutangula Bild0685.jpg, '' Caralluma acutangula'' File:Caralluma europaea - cvet.jpg, '' Caralluma europaea'' File:Caralluma socotrana 01.jpg, '' Caralluma socotrana'' File:Cascabela thevetia1MTFL.jpg, '' Cascabela thevetia'' (syn. ''Thevetia peruviana'') File:Catharanthus roseus-IMG 5432.jpg, ''

'' File:Cerbera manghas flower.jpg, ''

Cerbera manghas ''Cerbera manghas'', the sea mango, is a small evergreen coastal tree growing up to tall. It is native to coastal areas in Africa, Asia, Australasia, and the Pacific islands. It is classified as one of the three species in the genus Cerbera that ...

'' File:Cryptolepis buchananii (2618297906).jpg, ''

Cryptolepis dubia ''Cryptolepis dubia'' is a species of flowering plant in the family Apocynaceae Apocynaceae (from ''Apocynum'', Greek for "dog-away") is a family of flowering plants that includes trees, shrubs, herbs, stem succulents, and vines, commonly ...

'' File:Cycladeniahumilisjonesii.JPG, '' Cycladenia humilis var.jonesii'' File:Holarrhena pubescens flowers.jpg, ''

Holarrhena pubescens ''Holarrhena pubescens'' is a species of flowering plant in the family Apocynaceae. It is native to central and southern Africa, the Indian Subcontinent, Indochina Mainland Southeast Asia, also known as the Indochinese Peninsula or Indochin ...

'' File:Hoodia gordonii 1DS-II 2-3327.jpg, ''

Hoodia gordonii ''Hoodia gordonii'', also known as Bushman’s hat, is a leafless spiny succulent plant supposed to have therapeutic properties in folk medicine. It grows naturally in Botswana, South Africa and Namibia. The species became internationally known ...

'' File:Hoya FR 2013.jpg, ''

Hoya carnosa ''Hoya carnosa'', the porcelainflower or wax plant, is an asclepiad species of flowering plant in the dogbane family Apocynaceae. It is one of the many species of ''Hoya'' that are native to Eastern Asia and Australia. It is a common house plant ...

'' File:Mandevilla boliviensis.jpg, '' Mandevilla boliviensis'' File:Nerium oleander pink.jpg, ''

'' File:Ochrosia borbonica 02.JPG, ''

Ochrosia borbonica ''Ochrosia borbonica'' is a species of plant in the family Apocynaceae. It is native to Mauritius and Réunion, and naturalized in Guangdong Province in China. The species is listed as endangered. References

Ochrosia, borbonica Endanger ...

'' File:Pachypodium lamerei 5Dsr 1733.jpg, ''

Pachypodium lamerei ''Pachypodium lamerei'' is a species of flowering plant in the family Apocynaceae. It is a stem succulent, photosynthesizing mainly through its trunk, and comes from the island of Madagascar, off the east coast of Africa. It has large thorns and ...

'' File:Comarca Oeste, Las Palmas, Spain - panoramio.jpg, ''Pachypodium lamerei'' growth habit File:Fiore di Periploca graeca.jpg, ''

Periploca graeca ''Periploca graeca'', the silkvine, is an ornamental plant in the family Apocynaceae. It is native to southern Europe and the Middle East, and is sparingly naturalized in scattered locations in the eastern United States The United State ...

'' File:Plumeria rubra L. (2257161947).jpg, ''

Plumeria rubra ''Plumeria rubra'' is a deciduous plant species belonging to the genus ''Plumeria''."Botanica. The Illustrated AZ of over 10000 garden plants and how to cultivate them", p. 691. Könemann, 2004. Originally native to Mexico, Central America, Col ...

'' File:Rhabdadenia madida.jpg, '' Rhabdadenia madida'' File:Rauvolfia serpentina 11.JPG, ''

'' File:Saba senegalensis 0002.jpg, '' Saba senegalensis'' File:Secamone alpini00.jpg, '' Secamone alpini'' File:Aasblume Aug 2005.jpg, '' Stapelia gigantea'' File:Strophanthus speciosus 1DS-II 6026.jpg, '' Strophanthus speciosus'' File:Tabernaemontana divaricata flower in jaffna.JPG, ''

Tabernaemontana divaricata ''Tabernaemontana divaricata'', commonly called pinwheel flower, crape jasmine, East India rosebay, and Nero's crown, is an evergreen shrub or small tree native to South Asia, Southeast Asia and China. In zones where it is not hardy it is grown a ...

'' File:Tabernanthe iboga MS 4098.jpg, ''

'' in flower and fruit. File:(MAD) T. jasminoides-1.jpg, ''

Trachelospermum jasminoides ''Trachelospermum jasminoides'' is a species of flowering plant in the family (biology), family Apocynaceae, native plant, native to eastern and southeastern Asia (Japan, Korea, southern China and Vietnam).Flora of China''Trachelospermum jasmino ...

'' File:Vinca minor beentree.jpg, ''

Vinca minor ''Vinca minor'' (common names lesser periwinkle or dwarf periwinkle) is a species of flowering plant in the dogbane family, native to central and southern Europe, from Portugal and France north to the Netherlands and the Baltic States, east to ...

'' File:Wrightia tinctoria flowers in Keesaraguda, AP W IMG 9109.jpg, ''

Wrightia tinctoria ''Wrightia tinctoria'', Pala indigo plant or dyer's oleander, is a flowering plant species in the genus ''Wrightia'' found in India, southeast Asia and Australia. It is found in dry and moist regions in its distribution. Various parts of the plan ...

'' File:Wrightia antidysenterica (2).JPG, ''

Wrightia antidysenterica ''Wrightia antidysenterica'', the coral swirl or tellicherry bark, is a flowering plant in the genus ''Wrightia''. ''Wrightia antidysenterica'' is sometimes confused with the species ''Holarrhena pubescens ''Holarrhena pubescens'' is a species ...

'' File:Wrightia tinctoria 09.JPG, ''

'' single flower

Fruits

File:Acokanthera oblongifolia 03.jpg, ''

'' File:Fruits in Adenuim Obesum Plant on Terrace garden.jpg, ''

'' File:Adenium obesum pod and seeds.jpg, ''

'' dehiscence of single fruit. File:Allamanda cathartica MHNT.jpg, '' Allamanda cathartica'' File:Alstonia scholaris fruits.JPG, ''

'' File:Alyxia oliviformis fruit.jpg, ''

'' File:Amsonia tabernaemontana container plant in fruit (paired follicles).jpg, '' Amsonia tabernaemontana'' containerised specimen in fruit File:Amsonia tabernaemontana single paired follicle detached from plant (pale side).jpg, ''Amsonia tabernaemontana'' single paired follicle detached from plant (paler, unsunned side) File:Ancylobothrys capensis, vrugte, Faerie Glen NR.jpg, '' Ancylobothrys capensis'' File:Milkweed-in-seed.jpg, ''

'' dehiscent follicles (before unfurling of

pappi In Asteraceae, the pappus is the modified calyx, the part of an individual floret, that surrounds the base of the corolla tube in flower. It functions as a wind-dispersal mechanism for the seeds. The term is sometimes used for similar s ...

) File:Asclepias curassavica 003.JPG, '' Asclepias curassavica'' dehiscent follicles shedding seeds with unfurled pappi File:Thevetia peruviana 04.JPG, '' Cascabela thevetia'' (syn.''Thevetia peruviana'') File:Thevetia peruviana - Fruits.jpg, '' Cascabela thevetia'' (syn.''Thevetia peruviana''): dissection of toxic fruits. File:Cerbera tanghin - Köhler–s Medizinal-Pflanzen-176.jpg, ''

'' File:Cryptolepis buchananii (6048993215).jpg, ''

'' File:Holarrhena pubescens fruits.jpg, ''

'' File:Hoodia gordonii Frucht P1010402.JPG, ''

Hoodia gordoniI ''Hoodia gordonii'', also known as Bushman’s hat, is a leafless spiny succulent plant supposed to have therapeutic properties in folk medicine. It grows naturally in Botswana, South Africa and Namibia. The species became internationally known ...

'' File:Mandevilla boliviensis 9zz.jpg, '' Mandevilla boliviensis'' File:Nerium oleander seeds.jpg, ''

'' (dehiscence) File:Ochrosia borbonica fruit 1.JPG, ''

Ochrosia, borbonica Endanger ...

'' File:Pachypodium namaquanum 1DS-II 1-C5587.jpg, ''

Pachypodium namaquanum ''Pachypodium namaquanum'', also known as halfmens or elephants trunk, is a succulent plant of Southern Africa. The genus name ''Pachypodium'' is from the Greek for 'thick foot', an allusion to its swollen base, while the species name ''namaq ...

'' File:Periploca graeca Silk Vine ღვედკეცი.JPG, ''

'' File:Plumeria alba (seed pods).jpg, '' Plumeria alba'' File:സർപഗന്ധി വിത്തുകൾ 13.JPG, ''

'' File:Saba senegalensis MS 1367.JPG, '' Saba senegalensis'' unripe fruit File:Saba senegalensis - fruit pulp sections.jpg, '' Saba senegalensis'': dissection of ripe, edible fruit File:Secamone parvifolia 1DS-II 3-3506.jpg, '' Secamone parvifolia'' File:Stapelia gigantea 1DS-II 8834.jpg, '' Stapelia gigantea'' File:Strophanthus speciosus, vrugkapsule en sade, Manie van der Schijff BT, a.jpg, '' Strophanthus speciosus'' (dehiscence) File:Tabernaemontana catharinensis (1).JPG, ''

Tabernaemontana catharinensis ''Tabernaemontana catharinensis'' is a species of plant in the family Apocynaceae.''Tabernaemontana c ...

'' (dehiscence) File:Iboga.jpg, ''

'' File:Trachelospermum jasminoides fruits+seeds.jpg, ''

'' (dehiscence) File:Trachelospermum jasminoides seeds.jpg, ''Trachelospermum jasminoides'': individual seeds, showing pappus File:Vinca major vima 002 php.jpg, ''

Vinca major ''Vinca major'', with the common names bigleaf periwinkle, large periwinkle, greater periwinkle and blue periwinkle, is a species of flowering plant in the family Apocynaceae, native to the western Mediterranean. Growing to tall and spreading i ...

'' (seeds) File:Illustration Vinca minor0 clean.png, ''

'': botanical plate showing paired fruits (no. 5) File:Wrightia tinctoria 32.JPG, ''

Pachycaul species

File:Desert rose Adenium obesum in Tanzania 2259 Nevit.jpg, ''

'' growth habit of wild specimens, Tanzania File:Desert Rose (Adenium obesum), Ghana.jpg, ''Adenium obesum'' close-up of colossal specimen, Ghana File:Desert Rose, Socotra Is (17131661372).jpg, ''Adenium obesum'' trunk of extreme pachycaul specimen, Socotra File:Pachypodium lamerei 01.jpg, ''

'' wild specimen of maximum height (approx ) attained by species File:Pachypodium lamieri1MTFL.jpg, ''

'' in flower File:PachypodiumLamerei.jpg, ''Pachypodium lamerei'' mature, multi-trunked specimen cultivated in glasshouse File:Pachypodium namaquanum00.jpg, ''

References

External links

Apocynaceae
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Taxonomy

Distribution and habitat

Description

Growth pattern

Leaves and stems

Inflorescence and fruit

Ecology

Toxicity

Uses

Gallery

Flowers

Fruits

Pachycaul species

References

External links

Further reading