![Hudson_anti_suffrage](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/95/Hudson_anti_suffrage.png)
Anti-suffragism was a political movement composed of both men and women that began in the late 19th century in order to campaign against
women's suffrage
Women's suffrage is the right of women to vote in elections. Beginning in the start of the 18th century, some people sought to change voting laws to allow women to vote. Liberal political parties would go on to grant women the right to vot ...
in countries such as
Australia
Australia, officially the Commonwealth of Australia, is a Sovereign state, sovereign country comprising the mainland of the Australia (continent), Australian continent, the island of Tasmania, and numerous List of islands of Australia, sma ...
,
Canada
Canada is a country in North America. Its ten provinces and three territories extend from the Atlantic Ocean to the Pacific Ocean and northward into the Arctic Ocean, covering over , making it the world's second-largest country by tot ...
,
Ireland
Ireland ( ; ga, Éire ; Ulster Scots dialect, Ulster-Scots: ) is an island in the Atlantic Ocean, North Atlantic Ocean, in Northwestern Europe, north-western Europe. It is separated from Great Britain to its east by the North Channel (Grea ...
, the
United Kingdom
The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, commonly known as the United Kingdom (UK) or Britain, is a country in Europe, off the north-western coast of the continental mainland. It comprises England, Scotland, Wales and North ...
and the
United States
The United States of America (U.S.A. or USA), commonly known as the United States (U.S. or US) or America, is a country primarily located in North America. It consists of 50 states, a federal district, five major unincorporated territorie ...
. To some extent, Anti-suffragism was a
Classical Conservative movement that sought to keep the
status quo
is a Latin phrase meaning the existing state of affairs, particularly with regard to social, political, religious or military issues. In the sociological sense, the ''status quo'' refers to the current state of social structure and/or values. W ...
for women and which opposed the idea of giving women equal suffrage rights. It was closely associated with "domestic feminism," the belief that women had the right to complete freedom within the home. In the United States, these activists were often referred to as "remonstrants" or "antis."
Background
The anti-suffrage movement was a
counter movement opposing the social movement of
women's suffrage
Women's suffrage is the right of women to vote in elections. Beginning in the start of the 18th century, some people sought to change voting laws to allow women to vote. Liberal political parties would go on to grant women the right to vot ...
in various countries. It could also be considered a
counterpublic that espoused a
democratic defense of the
status quo
is a Latin phrase meaning the existing state of affairs, particularly with regard to social, political, religious or military issues. In the sociological sense, the ''status quo'' refers to the current state of social structure and/or values. W ...
for women and men in society. As a counter movement, the anti-suffrage movement did not gain traction or start to organize until the women's suffrage began to challenge the current
social order
The term social order can be used in two senses: In the first sense, it refers to a particular system of social structures and institutions. Examples are the ancient, the feudal, and the capitalist social order. In the second sense, social order ...
.
Countries in the
Western World
The Western world, also known as the West, primarily refers to the various nations and state (polity), states in the regions of Europe, North America, and Oceania. began to explore giving women the equal right to vote around the mid 19th century, beginning with the Wyoming Territory in 1869.
Areas with the most visible women's suffrage movements were
Great Britain
Great Britain is an island in the North Atlantic Ocean off the northwest coast of continental Europe. With an area of , it is the largest of the British Isles, the largest European island and the ninth-largest island in the world. It is ...
and in the
United States
The United States of America (U.S.A. or USA), commonly known as the United States (U.S. or US) or America, is a country primarily located in North America. It consists of 50 states, a federal district, five major unincorporated territorie ...
, although women's suffrage movements took place in many Western countries. Anti-suffrage activities began to emerge in many countries as women publicly advocated for suffrage.
Australia
Anti-suffrage movements were present in
Australia
Australia, officially the Commonwealth of Australia, is a Sovereign state, sovereign country comprising the mainland of the Australia (continent), Australian continent, the island of Tasmania, and numerous List of islands of Australia, sma ...
through the 1880s and 1890s.
Anti-suffrage organisations in Australia were "closely associated with the Conservative Party, manufacturing interests and anti-
socialist
Socialism is a left-wing economic philosophy and movement encompassing a range of economic systems characterized by the dominance of social ownership of the means of production as opposed to private ownership. As a term, it describes the e ...
forces." The Australian media took part in the anti-suffrage movement, and depicted women as being "weak and unintelligent," emotional and too involved in domestic and trivial matters.
Canada
Canadian
Canadians (french: Canadiens) are people identified with the country of Canada. This connection may be residential, legal, historical or cultural. For most Canadians, many (or all) of these connections exist and are collectively the source of ...
men and women both became involved in debating the women's suffrage movement in the late 19th century. Women's suffrage was debated in the Legislative Assembly in
New Brunswick
New Brunswick (french: Nouveau-Brunswick, , locally ) is one of the thirteen provinces and territories of Canada. It is one of the three Maritime provinces and one of the four Atlantic provinces. It is the only province with both English and ...
starting in 1885, and anti-suffrage "testimonies" began to appear in the newspapers around that time.
Great Britain
![Anti-suffrage postcard- For a Suffragette the Ducking-Stool](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/02/Anti-suffrage_postcard-_For_a_Suffragette_the_Ducking-Stool.jpg)
Organized campaigns against women's suffrage began in earnest in 1905, around the same time that
suffragette
A suffragette was a member of an activist women's organisation in the early 20th century who, under the banner "Votes for Women", fought for the right to vote in public elections in the United Kingdom. The term refers in particular to members ...
s were turning to
militant
The English word ''militant'' is both an adjective and a noun, and it is generally used to mean vigorously active, combative and/or aggressive, especially in support of a cause, as in "militant reformers". It comes from the 15th century Latin " ...
tactics. In general, most ordinary women had prioritized domestic and family life over paid employment and political activism when it came to the issue of suffrage. Most historical evidence shows that ordinary women did not have much interest in the right to vote before the first World War and also after suffrage had been granted to women.
The
Women's National Anti-Suffrage League
The Women's National Anti-Suffrage League (1908–18) was established in London on 21 July 1908. Its aims were to oppose women being granted the vote in parliamentary elections, although it did support their having votes in local government ele ...
was established in London on 21 July 1908. Its aims were to oppose women being granted the vote in British parliamentary elections, although it did support their having votes in local government elections. It was founded at a time when there was a resurgence of support for the women's suffrage movement.
The Women's National Anti-Suffrage League, publisher of the ''Anti-Suffrage Review'', submitted a petition to
Parliament
In modern politics, and history, a parliament is a legislative body of government. Generally, a modern parliament has three functions: Representation (politics), representing the Election#Suffrage, electorate, making laws, and overseeing ...
in 1907 with 87,500 names, but it was rejected by the Petitions Committee of Parliament as "informal". The ''Anti-Suffrage Review'' also used
shame
Shame is an unpleasant self-conscious emotion often associated with negative self-evaluation; motivation to quit; and feelings of pain, exposure, distrust, powerlessness, and worthlessness.
Definition
Shame is a discrete, basic emotion, d ...
as a tool to fight against the suffrage movement.
An Anti-suffrage correspondence had taken place in the pages of ''
The Times
''The Times'' is a British daily national newspaper based in London. It began in 1785 under the title ''The Daily Universal Register'', adopting its current name on 1 January 1788. ''The Times'' and its sister paper ''The Sunday Times'' (fou ...
'' through 1906–1907, with further calls for leadership of the anti-suffrage movement being placed in ''
The Spectator
''The Spectator'' is a weekly British magazine on politics, culture, and current affairs. It was first published in July 1828, making it the oldest surviving weekly magazine in the world.
It is owned by Frederick Barclay, who also owns ''The ...
'' in February 1908. Possibly as early as 1907, a letter was circulated to announce the creation of a National Women's Anti-Suffrage Association and inviting recipients to become a member of the Central Organising Committee or a member. It was issued under the names of thirty peeresses who would become prominent anti-suffragists, as well as a number of peers and MPs. However, the first meeting of the Women's National Anti-Suffrage League only took place the following year on 21 July, at the Westminster Palace Hotel with
Lady Jersey in the Chair. Seventeen persons were nominated to the central committee at this meeting, including
Mrs Humphry Ward
Mary Augusta Ward (''née'' Arnold; 11 June 1851 – 24 March 1920) was a British novelist who wrote under her married name as Mrs Humphry Ward.
She worked to improve education for the poor and she became the founding President of the Women' ...
in the chair of the Literary Committee and
Gertrude Bell
Gertrude Margaret Lowthian Bell, CBE (14 July 1868 – 12 July 1926) was an English writer, traveller, political officer, administrator, and archaeologist. She spent much of her life exploring and mapping the Middle East, and became highly ...
as secretary. Other members were
Mrs. Frederic Harrison,
Miss Lonsdale,
Violet Markham
Violet Rosa Markham (October 1872 – 2 February 1959) was a writer, social reformer, campaigner against women's suffrage and administrator. She grew up near Chesterfield, Derbyshire. Actively involved in community and welfare work, she held ...
and
Hilaire Belloc
Joseph Hilaire Pierre René Belloc (, ; 27 July 187016 July 1953) was a Franco-English writer and historian of the early twentieth century. Belloc was also an orator, poet, sailor, satirist, writer of letters, soldier, and political activist. H ...
MP. Beatrice Chamberlain served as the editor of the ''Anti-Suffrage Review''.
The League's aims were to oppose women being granted the parliamentary franchise, though it did support their having votes in local and municipal elections. It published the ''Anti-Suffrage Review'' from December 1908 until 1918. It gathered 337,018 signatures on an anti-suffrage petition and founded the first local branch in Hawkenhurst in Kent. The first London branch was established in South Kensington under the auspices of Mary, Countess of Ilchester. Soon after, in May 1910, a Scottish branch was organised into the Scottish National Anti-Suffrage League by the
Duchess of Montrose. By December of that year, there were 26 branches or sub-branches in the country, a total which grew to 82 by April 1909, and 104 in July 1910. It was announced that 2000 subscriptions had been received by December, 1908, rising to 9000 in July, 1909.
In 1910, the group amalgamated with the
Men's League for Opposing Woman Suffrage
The Men's League for Opposing Woman Suffrage (sometimes referred to as the Men's League for Opposing Women's Suffrage) was founded on 19 January 1909 with Lord Cromer as President, replacing the Men's Committee for Opposing Woman Suffrage, which ...
to form the
National League for Opposing Women's Suffrage with
Lord Cromer
Earl of Cromer is a title in the Peerage of the United Kingdom, held by members of the Baring family, of German descent. It was created for Evelyn Baring, 1st Viscount Cromer, long time British Consul-General in Egypt. He had already been cr ...
as president and Lady Jersey as Vice-President. The merger was in effect a takeover, as the president of the former organisation, Lord Cromer, became president of the new one. In 1912
Lord Curzon
George Nathaniel Curzon, 1st Marquess Curzon of Kedleston, (11 January 1859 – 20 March 1925), styled Lord Curzon of Kedleston between 1898 and 1911 and then Earl Curzon of Kedleston between 1911 and 1921, was a British Conservative statesman ...
and
Lord Weardale
Philip James Stanhope, 1st Baron Weardale (8 December 1847 – 1 March 1923), was a British Liberal Party politician and philanthropist.
Background and early life
Stanhope was born in Marylebone, London. A member of an important political famil ...
became joint presidents. By 1914, there were around 15,000 members. The organisation continued its activities and the publication of the ''Anti-Suffrage Review'' until 1918 when both came to an end as women's suffrage was granted.
Reasons for suffrage opposition
The opposition to the right for women to vote was a multifaceted phenomenon in which women themselves played a major part. One of the reasons for opposition from women was that they believed that women were already equal without needing to be able to vote, although women were expected to be "equal" in different spheres from men. Anti-suffragists were also appalled by the tactics of Suffragettes, who they believed "had attacked the very essence of English womanhood."
Many female maternal reformers, who sought to protect women's defined spheres of motherhood, education, philanthropy, and civil service, felt that women were the better sex for preserving British society through social service to their communities rather than by meddling with politics. Women considered themselves as less able to participate in politics and that to do so was women just imitating men, instead of being "real women." Some feared that the right to vote would introduce uninformed women in making decisions on important political matters. Since Britain was in the process of colonizing other regions around the globe, some viewed the right to vote as a threat to their imperial power as it would make the British look weak by other nations who were male oriented still. Some suffragist female groups developed militant and violent tactics which tarnished the image of women as innocent people that the anti-suffragists had been striving to preserve. Anti-suffragists used these acts as reasons to show that women were mentally unable to handle political matters and that both genders had different strengths.
Women writers promoted anti-suffragism through their wide readerships by raising questions of what ideal women were to be like.
Ireland
Women's suffrage movements had been going on in
Ireland
Ireland ( ; ga, Éire ; Ulster Scots dialect, Ulster-Scots: ) is an island in the Atlantic Ocean, North Atlantic Ocean, in Northwestern Europe, north-western Europe. It is separated from Great Britain to its east by the North Channel (Grea ...
since the 1870s. However, as Suffragettes in Ireland became more militant, more organized anti-suffrage campaigns emerged. An Irish branch of the
Women's National Anti-Suffrage League
The Women's National Anti-Suffrage League (1908–18) was established in London on 21 July 1908. Its aims were to oppose women being granted the vote in parliamentary elections, although it did support their having votes in local government ele ...
was started in 1909 in
Dublin
Dublin (; , or ) is the capital and largest city of Republic of Ireland, Ireland. On a bay at the mouth of the River Liffey, it is in the Provinces of Ireland, province of Leinster, bordered on the south by the Dublin Mountains, a part of th ...
.
This branch of the League also opposed suffrage in Britain as well.
Reasons for suffrage opposition
Irish opposition to the women's vote was both religious and cultural. Both
Catholic
The Catholic Church, also known as the Roman Catholic Church, is the largest Christian church, with 1.3 billion baptized Catholics worldwide . It is among the world's oldest and largest international institutions, and has played a ...
and
Protestant
Protestantism is a Christian denomination, branch of Christianity that follows the theological tenets of the Reformation, Protestant Reformation, a movement that began seeking to reform the Catholic Church from within in the 16th century agai ...
churches in Ireland wanted women's influence to remain domestic in nature.
Women were closely associated with their husbands for legal and political purposes and it was argued that husband's votes were sufficient to allow a woman's political expression.
Irish nationalism
Irish nationalism is a nationalist political movement which, in its broadest sense, asserts that the people of Ireland should govern Ireland as a sovereign state. Since the mid-19th century, Irish nationalism has largely taken the form of cu ...
also played a role in anti-suffrage movements. Because of the nationalistic movements going on in Ireland, both men and women nationalists opposed giving women the vote because they were prioritizing
Irish Home Rule
The Irish Home Rule movement was a movement that campaigned for Devolution, self-government (or "home rule") for Ireland within the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland. It was the dominant political movement of Irish nationalism from 1 ...
. A nationalist paper, ''
Bean na hÉireann,'' which was published by the
Inghinidhe na hÉirann (Daughters of Ireland), took a very anti-suffrage stance.
United States
![Looking backward - Laura E](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/50/Looking_backward_-_Laura_E._Foster._LCCN2002716765.jpg)
While men were involved in the anti-suffrage movement in the
United States
The United States of America (U.S.A. or USA), commonly known as the United States (U.S. or US) or America, is a country primarily located in North America. It consists of 50 states, a federal district, five major unincorporated territorie ...
, most anti-suffrage groups were led and supported by women. In fact, more women joined Anti-suffrage groups than suffrage associations, until 1916. While these groups openly stated that they wanted
politics
Politics (from , ) is the set of activities that are associated with making decisions in groups, or other forms of power relations among individuals, such as the distribution of resources or status. The branch of social science that studies ...
to be left to men, it was more often women addressing political bodies with anti-suffrage arguments. The first women-led anti-suffrage group in the United States was the
Anti-Sixteenth Amendment Society. The group was started by
Madeleine Vinton Dahlgren
Madeleine Vinton Dahlgren (pen names, Corinne and Cornelia; July 13, 1825 – May 28, 1898) was an American writer, translator, and anti-suffragist. Her volume, ''Idealities'' (Philadelphia, 1859) was her first work in book form. Thereafter, she f ...
in 1869. During the fight to pass the
nineteenth amendment, women increasingly took on a leading role in the anti-suffrage movement.
Helen Kendrick Johnson's ''Woman and the Republic'' (1897) was a lauded anti-suffrage book that described the reasons for opposing women's right to vote. Other books, such as
Molly Elliot Seawell's ''The Ladies' Battle'' (1911),
Ida Tarbell's ''The Business of Being a Woman'' (1912),
Grace Duffield Goodwin's ''Anti-Suffrage: Ten Good Reasons'' (1915) and
Annie Riley Hale's ''The Eden Sphinx'' (1916) were similarly well-received by the media and used as a "coherent rationale for opposing women's enfranchisement."
Anti-suffrage
drama
Drama is the specific mode of fiction represented in performance: a play, opera, mime, ballet, etc., performed in a theatre, or on radio or television.Elam (1980, 98). Considered as a genre of poetry in general, the dramatic mode has been ...
s were also published between the mid 1800s and up to the 1920s. The first playwright to create anti-suffrage plays was
William Bentley Fowle, who wrote the one-act play for amateurs, ''Women's Rights'', published in 1856. Later plays were adapted for the professional stage, such as ''The Rights of Man'' (1857) by Oliver S. Leland and ''Election Day'' (1880) by
Frank Dumont
Frank Dumont (January 25, 1848 – March 17, 1919) was an American minstrel show performer and manager.Rice, Edward Le RoyMonarchs of minstrelsy, from "Daddy" Rice to date p. 198 (1911) .
Nellie Locke published an anti-suffrage drama in 1896, called ''A Victim of Women's Rights''. Many anti-suffrage dramas were overtly political and incorporated the use of
farce
Farce is a comedy that seeks to entertain an audience through situations that are highly exaggerated, extravagant, ridiculous, absurd, and improbable. Farce is also characterized by heavy use of physical humor; the use of deliberate absurdity o ...
to paint suffragists as "self-absorbed" and "mannish in dress and manner." They also criticized the idea of the
New Woman
The New Woman was a feminist ideal that emerged in the late 19th century and had a profound influence well into the 20th century. In 1894, Irish writer Sarah Grand (1854–1943) used the term "new woman" in an influential article, to refer to ...
in general and advocated for women and men to occupy separate spheres of influence.
''The Remonstrance'', a journal published by the
Massachusetts Association Opposed to the Further Extension of Suffrage to Women (MAOFESW) between 1890 and 1920 was used to promote anti-suffrage ideas and also to react to and refute the claims of suffragists.
Early backing for the anti-suffrage movement
The anti-suffrage movement began in the United States after the
Massachusetts State legislature
The Massachusetts General Court (formally styled the General Court of Massachusetts) is the state legislature of the Commonwealth of Massachusetts. The name "General Court" is a hold-over from the earliest days of the Massachusetts Bay Colony, ...
introduced a proposal to promote female voting rights. Two hundred women opposed this initiative as they did not want women to gain full citizenship. Though nothing became of this proposal, its introduction mobilized the suffrage movement on both sides.
In 1871, a petition to the
United States Congress
The United States Congress is the legislature of the federal government of the United States. It is bicameral, composed of a lower body, the House of Representatives, and an upper body, the Senate. It meets in the U.S. Capitol in Washing ...
was published by nineteen women in
Godey's Lady's Book and Magazine in opposition to votes for women, the first instance of the mobilization from anti-suffrage women.
Women turned out at the
New York State Constitutional Convention
The Constitution of the State of New York establishes the structure of the government of the State of New York, and enumerates the basic rights of the citizens of New York. Like most state constitutions in the United States, New York's constituti ...
in 1894 to protest women's suffrage.
Emergence of anti-suffrage organizations
In 1895, the
Massachusetts Association Opposed to the Further Extension of Suffrage to Women (MAOFESW) was created and is noted to be the first effort of the anti-suffragists to institutionalize their cause. In
Des Moines, Iowa
Des Moines () is the capital and the most populous city in the U.S. state of Iowa. It is also the county seat of Polk County. A small part of the city extends into Warren County. It was incorporated on September 22, 1851, as Fort Des Moines, ...
, 35 women formed the Iowa Association Opposed to Woman Suffrage in 1898.
California
California is a U.S. state, state in the Western United States, located along the West Coast of the United States, Pacific Coast. With nearly 39.2million residents across a total area of approximately , it is the List of states and territori ...
,
Illinois
Illinois ( ) is a U.S. state, state in the Midwestern United States, Midwestern United States. Its largest metropolitan areas include the Chicago metropolitan area, and the Metro East section, of Greater St. Louis. Other smaller metropolita ...
,
New York
New York most commonly refers to:
* New York City, the most populous city in the United States, located in the state of New York
* New York (state), a state in the northeastern United States
New York may also refer to:
Film and television
* '' ...
,
Oregon
Oregon () is a U.S. state, state in the Pacific Northwest region of the Western United States. The Columbia River delineates much of Oregon's northern boundary with Washington (state), Washington, while the Snake River delineates much of it ...
,
South Dakota
South Dakota (; Sioux language, Sioux: , ) is a U.S. state in the West North Central states, North Central region of the United States. It is also part of the Great Plains. South Dakota is named after the Lakota people, Lakota and Dakota peo ...
and
Washington
Washington commonly refers to:
* Washington (state), United States
* Washington, D.C., the capital of the United States
** A metonym for the federal government of the United States
** Washington metropolitan area, the metropolitan area centered o ...
all formed groups by 1900.
Ohio
Ohio () is a state in the Midwestern region of the United States. Of the fifty U.S. states, it is the 34th-largest by area, and with a population of nearly 11.8 million, is the seventh-most populous and tenth-most densely populated. The sta ...
formed an anti suffrage group, the Ohio Association Opposed to Woman Suffrage in 1902.
The
New York State Association Opposed to Woman Suffrage
The New York State Association Opposed to Woman Suffrage (NYSAOWS) was an American anti-suffrage organization in New York. The group was made up of prominent women who fought against the cause of women's suffrage by giving speeches, handing out ma ...
was founded in 1897, and by 1908 it had over 90 members. It was active in producing pamphlets and publications explaining their views of women's suffrage, until the
Nineteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution was passed in 1920. A
Geneva
Geneva ( ; french: Genève ) frp, Genèva ; german: link=no, Genf ; it, Ginevra ; rm, Genevra is the List of cities in Switzerland, second-most populous city in Switzerland (after Zürich) and the most populous city of Romandy, the French-speaki ...
branch was founded in 1909. The
suffragists
Suffrage, political franchise, or simply franchise, is the right to vote in public, political elections and referendums (although the term is sometimes used for any right to vote). In some languages, and occasionally in English, the right to v ...
in New York often extended invitations to open discussion with the anti-suffragists. The New York association had its own magazine, ''The Anti-Suffragist'', published by Mrs. William Winslow Crannell from July 1908 to April 1912.
The
National Association Opposed to Woman Suffrage
The National Association Opposed to Women Suffrage (NAOWS) was founded in the United States by women opposed to the suffrage movement in 1911. It was the most popular anti-suffrage organization in northeastern cities. NAOWS had influential local ...
(NAOWS) was the first national organization of women who challenged the fight for women's suffrage.
Several state associations assembled for an anti-suffrage convention in New York City and formed the NAOWS. The association gained significant momentum between 1912 and 1916 and was operational in twenty-five states. The NAOWS was said to have as many as 350,000 members.
At the start, the organization was run by
Josephine Dodge and
Minnie Bronson
Minnie Bronson (September 12, 1863, New York - October 28, 1927 Cattaraugus County, New York) was an American anti-suffragist activist who was general secretary of the National Association Opposed to Woman Suffrage.
Biography
Minnie Bronson ...
.
Alice Hay Wadsworth Alice Evelyn Hay Wadsworth (1880 - May 13, 1960) was an American anti-suffrage leader during the early 20th century. She was daughter of John Hay, 37th United States Secretary of State, and Clara L. Stone and was married to U.S. Senator James Wolcot ...
, wife of
James Wolcott Wadsworth Jr.
James Wolcott Wadsworth Jr. (August 12, 1877June 21, 1952) was an American politician, a Republican Party (United States), Republican from New York (state), New York. He was the son of New York State Comptroller James Wolcott Wadsworth, and the ...
, assumed leadership of the association when it moved its headquarters from New York to Washington D.C. in 1917. NAOWS produced ''The Woman's Protest'', a newsletter that helped defeat close to forty woman suffrage referendums.
Everett P. Wheeler
Everett Pepperrell Wheeler (1840, New York City – 1925) was an American lawyer, author, politician, and Anti-suffragism, anti-suffrage activist.
He graduated from the City College of New York, College of the City of New York in 1856 and from ...
, a lawyer from New York, created the
Man-Suffrage Association Opposed to Woman Suffrage in 1913. This organization was made up of powerful and affluent men and started out with around 600 members opposed to women's suffrage.
World War I
Anti-suffragists helped contribute to war relief work during
World War I
World War I (28 July 1914 11 November 1918), often abbreviated as WWI, was one of the deadliest global conflicts in history. Belligerents included much of Europe, the Russian Empire, the United States, and the Ottoman Empire, with fightin ...
. NAOWS contributed to the
Belgian
Belgian may refer to:
* Something of, or related to, Belgium
* Belgians, people from Belgium or of Belgian descent
* Languages of Belgium, languages spoken in Belgium, such as Dutch, French, and German
*Ancient Belgian language, an extinct languag ...
war relief effort. Many anti-suffrage groups highlighted their charitable efforts, painting themselves as "self-sacrificing." They wanted the country to see that women could make a difference without the vote, however, it was partly the efforts of women aiding the war that helped women gain the vote in the end.
Reasons for suffrage opposition
There were several concerns that drove the anti-suffrage argument. Anti-suffragists felt that giving women the right to vote would threaten the family institution.
Illinois
Illinois ( ) is a U.S. state, state in the Midwestern United States, Midwestern United States. Its largest metropolitan areas include the Chicago metropolitan area, and the Metro East section, of Greater St. Louis. Other smaller metropolita ...
anti-suffragist,
Caroline Corbin felt that women's highest duties were motherhood and its responsibilities. Some saw women's suffrage as in opposition to God's will.
Antis such as
Catharine Beecher
Catharine Esther Beecher (September 6, 1800 – May 12, 1878) was an American educator known for her forthright opinions on female education as well as her vehement support of the many benefits of the incorporation of kindergarten into children's ...
and
Sara Josepha Hale both shared a religiously based criticism of suffrage and believed women should be only involved with ''
Kinder, Küche, Kirche
''Kinder, Küche, Kirche'' (), or the 3 Ks, is a German slogan translated as "children, kitchen, church" used under the German Empire to describe a woman's role in society. It now has a mostly derogatory connotation, describing what is seen as an ...
'' (children, kitchen and church). Some anti-suffragists did not want the vote because they felt it violated traditional
gender norms
A gender role, also known as a sex role, is a social role encompassing a range of behaviors and attitudes that are generally considered acceptable, appropriate, or desirable for a person based on that person's sex. Gender roles are usually cente ...
. Many anti-suffragists felt that if women gained the vote there would be an end to "true womanhood."
There were also those who thought that women could not handle the responsibility of voting because they lacked knowledge of that beyond the domestic sphere and they feared the government would be weakened by introducing this ill-informed electorate. Anti-suffragists did not see voting as a "right," but as a "duty" and that women already had their own unique responsibilities and duties in the
domestic sphere. Also, since Antis believed that governments had authority due to "force," women wouldn't be able to "enforce the laws they may enact."
Anti-suffragists, such as
Josephine Dodge, argued that giving women the right to vote would overburden them and undermine their privileged status.
They saw participation in the private sphere as essential to a woman's role and thought that giving them public duties would prevent them from fulfilling their primary responsibilities in the home. Anti-suffragists claimed that they represented the "silent majority" of America who did not want to enter the public sphere by gaining the right to vote. Being against women's suffrage didn't mean, however, that all Antis were against civic pursuits.
Jeanette L. Gilder, a journalist, wrote "Give women everything she wants, but not the ballot. Open every field of learning, every avenue of industry to her, but keep her out of politics." Dodge encouraged women to become involved in "charitable, philanthropic and educational activities." It was also cited that women had made reforms such as raising the
age of consent
The age of consent is the age at which a person is considered to be legally competent to consent to sexual acts. Consequently, an adult who engages in sexual activity with a person younger than the age of consent is unable to legally claim ...
without the vote and that gaining this right was, therefore, unnecessary and could even be harmful to further reform movements. The thought was that women were able to influence the government because they were seen as politically neutral and
non-partisan
Nonpartisanism is a lack of affiliation with, and a lack of bias towards, a political party.
While an Oxford English Dictionary definition of ''partisan'' includes adherents of a party, cause, person, etc., in most cases, nonpartisan refers sp ...
and giving them the right to vote would strip them of this unique position. In addition, because voting is "only a small part of government," they believed there was no need to vote in order to participate in politics.
This particular line of reasoning, that women should stay out of politics, kept the
General Federation of Women's Clubs
The General Federation of Women's Clubs (GFWC), founded in 1890 during the Progressive Movement, is a federation of over 3,000 women's clubs in the United States which promote civic improvements through volunteer service. Many of its activities ...
(GFWC) from officially endorsing suffrage until 1914.
Anti-suffragism was not limited to conservative elements. The
anarchist
Anarchism is a political philosophy and movement that is skeptical of all justifications for authority and seeks to abolish the institutions it claims maintain unnecessary coercion and hierarchy, typically including, though not neces ...
Emma Goldman
Emma Goldman (June 27, 1869 – May 14, 1940) was a Russian-born anarchist political activist and writer. She played a pivotal role in the development of anarchist political philosophy in North America and Europe in the first half of the ...
opposed suffragism on the grounds that women were more inclined toward legal enforcement of morality (as in the
Women's Christian Temperance Union
The Woman's Christian Temperance Union (WCTU) is an international temperance organization, originating among women in the United States Prohibition movement. It was among the first organizations of women devoted to social reform with a program th ...
), that it was a diversion from more important struggles, and that suffrage would ultimately not make a difference. She also said that activists ought to advocate
revolution
In political science, a revolution (Latin: ''revolutio'', "a turn around") is a fundamental and relatively sudden change in political power and political organization which occurs when the population revolts against the government, typically due ...
rather than seek greater privileges within an inherently unjust system. Anti-suffragists saw women's efforts to gain the vote to be all surface dressing with a lack of serious intent to change the world for the better. Other Antis believed that social reform was better accomplished through
trade union
A trade union (labor union in American English), often simply referred to as a union, is an organization of workers intent on "maintaining or improving the conditions of their employment", ch. I such as attaining better wages and benefits ( ...
s and non-partisan groups. Progressives criticized suffrage in the
Utah Territory
The Territory of Utah was an organized incorporated territory of the United States that existed from September 9, 1850, until January 4, 1896, when the final extent of the territory was admitted to the Union as the State of Utah, the 45th state. ...
as a cynical
Mormon
Mormons are a religious and cultural group related to Mormonism, the principal branch of the Latter Day Saint movement started by Joseph Smith in upstate New York during the 1820s. After Smith's death in 1844, the movement split into several ...
ploy, resulting in the passage of the
Edmunds-Tucker Act.
The anti-suffrage movement began to change in its position against suffrage in 1917, expanding their scope to include anti-
radical
Radical may refer to:
Politics and ideology Politics
*Radical politics, the political intent of fundamental societal change
*Radicalism (historical), the Radical Movement that began in late 18th century Britain and spread to continental Europe and ...
rhetoric. The anti-suffrage movement focused less on the issue of suffrage and began to spread fear of radical ideas and to use "conspiratorial paranoia." Suffragists were accused of subversion of the government and
treason
Treason is the crime of attacking a state authority to which one owes allegiance. This typically includes acts such as participating in a war against one's native country, attempting to overthrow its government, spying on its military, its diplo ...
. They were also accused of being
socialists
Socialism is a left-wing economic philosophy and movement encompassing a range of economic systems characterized by the dominance of social ownership of the means of production as opposed to private ownership. As a term, it describes the eco ...
, "
Bolsheviks
The Bolsheviks (russian: Большевики́, from большинство́ ''bol'shinstvó'', 'majority'),; derived from ''bol'shinstvó'' (большинство́), "majority", literally meaning "one of the majority". also known in English ...
" or "unpatriotic German sympathizers." The
Texas
Texas (, ; Spanish language, Spanish: ''Texas'', ''Tejas'') is a state in the South Central United States, South Central region of the United States. At 268,596 square miles (695,662 km2), and with more than 29.1 million residents in 2 ...
branch of the NAOWS accused women's suffrage groups of being linked to "socialism,
anarchy
Anarchy is a society without a government. It may also refer to a society or group of people that entirely rejects a set hierarchy. ''Anarchy'' was first used in English in 1539, meaning "an absence of government". Pierre-Joseph Proudhon adopted ...
and
Mormonism
Mormonism is the religious tradition and theology of the Latter Day Saint movement of Restorationist Christianity started by Joseph Smith in Western New York in the 1820s and 1830s. As a label, Mormonism has been applied to various aspects of t ...
."
Accusations of being associated with unpopular radical movements was named after the second president of NAOWS, Alice Wadsworth, and called "Wadsworthy" attacks. In addition to associating suffrage with radicalism, the antis also felt that they were
oppressed
Oppression is malicious or unjust treatment or exercise of power, often under the guise of governmental authority or cultural opprobrium. Oppression may be overt or covert, depending on how it is practiced. Oppression refers to discrimination w ...
and had lost much perceived political power by 1917.
Anti-suffrage movements in the
American South
The Southern United States (sometimes Dixie, also referred to as the Southern States, the American South, the Southland, or simply the South) is a geographic and cultural region of the United States of America. It is between the Atlantic Ocean ...
included an appeal to conservatism and
white supremacy
White supremacy or white supremacism is the belief that white people are superior to those of other races and thus should dominate them. The belief favors the maintenance and defense of any power and privilege held by white people. White su ...
. In
Virginia
Virginia, officially the Commonwealth of Virginia, is a state in the Mid-Atlantic and Southeastern regions of the United States, between the Atlantic Coast and the Appalachian Mountains. The geography and climate of the Commonwealth ar ...
, the NAOWS chapter even linked
race riots
An ethnic conflict is a conflict between two or more contending ethnic groups. While the source of the conflict may be political, social, economic or religious, the individuals in conflict must expressly fight for their ethnic group's positio ...
to women's suffrage.
Anti-suffragism after the nineteenth amendment
Once the
nineteenth amendment was passed, some women who opposed suffrage exercised this right.
They took the energy they were investing in the anti-suffrage movement and turned it towards supporting the platform of the Republican party. Former members of anti-suffrage groups in New York became involved in the
Women's National Republican Club
The Women's National Republican Club is the oldest private club for Republican women in the United States, and was founded by Henrietta Wells Livermore in 1921.The club grew out of the earlier women's suffrage movement in New York which led to the ...
. In this way, they left the private sphere and entered the public sphere, one of the things that they were resisting in their anti-suffrage efforts. Former anti-suffragist,
Ida Tarbell
Ida Minerva Tarbell (November 5, 1857January 6, 1944) was an American writer, Investigative journalism, investigative journalist, List of biographers, biographer and lecturer. She was one of the leading muckrakers of the Progressive Era of th ...
, pointed out that it would take some time for women to get comfortable with voting. Some women didn't vote or get involved in politics. Others, like
Annie Nathan Meyer
Annie Nathan Meyer (February 19, 1867 – September 23, 1951) was an American author, an anti-suffragist, and a promoter of higher education for women who founded Barnard College. Her sister was the activist Maud Nathan and her nephew the autho ...
advocated for all anti-suffrage women to not vote in order to allow the country to suffer from what she saw as a terrible decision to allow women to vote.
The passage of the Nineteenth Amendment also kickstarted a coalition of anti-suffragists who organized themselves into a political anti-feminist movement in order to "oppose expansion of social welfare programs, women's peace efforts, and to foster a political culture hostile to progressive female activists. This coalition effectively blended anti-feminism and anti-radicalism by embracing and utilizing the hysteria of the post-World War I Red Scare."
Criticism
![Anti_Satire_by_Alice_Duer_Miller](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/9e/Anti_Satire_by_Alice_Duer_Miller.jpg)
There was contemporary criticism of the anti-suffrage movement in the United States. One criticism was that anti-suffragists did not present a consistent argument against suffrage.
Other arguments were seen as inconsistent, such as Antis claiming that voting meant women must hold office, when members of anti-suffrage groups were already holding offices such as being on the
school board
A board of education, school committee or school board is the board of directors or board of trustees of a school, local school district or an equivalent institution.
The elected council determines the educational policy in a small regional are ...
. Other critics, such as
Alice Stone Blackwell
Alice Stone Blackwell (September 14, 1857 – March 15, 1950) was an American feminist, suffragist, journalist, radical socialist, and human rights advocate.
Early life and education
Blackwell was born in East Orange, New Jersey to Henry Browne ...
, pointed out that the anti-suffrage groups exaggerated certain claims, such as membership numbers. Critics also argued that there were no new arguments presented over time.
Anti-suffrage groups were also criticized for being "inconsistent" in that they wanted women out of the public sphere, yet they gathered together into public lobbying groups against suffrage.
''
The Valley Independent'' wrote in 1915 that any organization that wanted to oppose women's suffrage and which was made up of women "leaves a bad taste in our mouth."
Some critics were "almost contemptuous," such as
Anna Howard Shaw
Anna Howard Shaw (February 14, 1847 – July 2, 1919) was a leader of the women's suffrage movement in the United States. She was also a physician and one of the first ordained female Methodist ministers in the United States.
Early life
Shaw ...
, who said, "You'd think they would have loyalty enough to their sex not to make us all out a set of fools." Shaw believed that Antis were "puppets of more power male forces."
Florence Kelley
Florence Moltrop Kelley (September 12, 1859 – February 17, 1932) was a social and political reformer and the pioneer of the term wage abolitionism. Her work against sweatshops and for the minimum wage, eight-hour workdays, and children's rig ...
called anti-suffragists "lazy, comfortable, sheltered creatures, caring nothing for the miseries of the poor."
Archives
The archives of the Women's National Anti-Suffrage League are held at
The Women's Library
The Women's Library is England's main library and museum resource on women and the women's movement, concentrating on Britain in the 19th and 20th centuries. It has an institutional history as a coherent collection dating back to the mid-1920s, ...
at th
Library of the London School of Economics re
2WNA
The Library and Archives division of the
Georgia Historical Society
The Georgia Historical Society (GHS) is a statewide historical society in Georgia. Headquartered in Savannah, Georgia, GHS is one of the oldest historical organizations in the United States. Since 1839, the society has collected, examined, and ta ...
have a collection of broadsides from the National Association Opposed to Woman Suffrage from 1917–1919. The documents appear to be printed by state affiliates of the national group. One of the documents was issued by The Men's Anti-Ratification League of Montgomery, Alabama.
Notable people
*
Catharine Beecher
Catharine Esther Beecher (September 6, 1800 – May 12, 1878) was an American educator known for her forthright opinions on female education as well as her vehement support of the many benefits of the incorporation of kindergarten into children's ...
*
Hilaire Belloc
Joseph Hilaire Pierre René Belloc (, ; 27 July 187016 July 1953) was a Franco-English writer and historian of the early twentieth century. Belloc was also an orator, poet, sailor, satirist, writer of letters, soldier, and political activist. H ...
*
Gertrude Bell
Gertrude Margaret Lowthian Bell, CBE (14 July 1868 – 12 July 1926) was an English writer, traveller, political officer, administrator, and archaeologist. She spent much of her life exploring and mapping the Middle East, and became highly ...
*
Emily Bissell
Emily Perkins Bissell (May 31, 1861 – March 8, 1948) was an American social worker and activist, best remembered for introducing Christmas Seals to the United States.
Born in Wilmington, Delaware, she made a name for herself at a young age as t ...
*
Alice Stone Blackwell
Alice Stone Blackwell (September 14, 1857 – March 15, 1950) was an American feminist, suffragist, journalist, radical socialist, and human rights advocate.
Early life and education
Blackwell was born in East Orange, New Jersey to Henry Browne ...
*
Minnie Bronson
Minnie Bronson (September 12, 1863, New York - October 28, 1927 Cattaraugus County, New York) was an American anti-suffragist activist who was general secretary of the National Association Opposed to Woman Suffrage.
Biography
Minnie Bronson ...
*
Beatrice Chamberlain
Beatrice Chamberlain (25 May 1862 – 19 November 1918) was a British educationalist and political organizer.
Life
Chamberlain was born in Edgbaston in 1862. Her father was Joseph Chamberlain, a local industrialist who later became Mayor of Birm ...
*
Madeleine Vinton Dahlgren
Madeleine Vinton Dahlgren (pen names, Corinne and Cornelia; July 13, 1825 – May 28, 1898) was an American writer, translator, and anti-suffragist. Her volume, ''Idealities'' (Philadelphia, 1859) was her first work in book form. Thereafter, she f ...
*
Josephine Jewell Dodge
Josephine may refer to:
People
* Josephine (given name), a given name (including a list of people with the name)
* Josephine (singer), a Greek pop singer
Places
*Josephine, Texas, United States
*Mount Josephine (disambiguation)
* Josephine Coun ...
*
Jeannette Leonard Gilder
Jeannette Leonard Gilder ( pen name, Brunswick; October 3, 1849 – January 17, 1916) was an American author, journalist, critic, and editor. She served as the regular correspondent and literary critic for ''Chicago Tribune'', and was also a corr ...
*
Emma Goldman
Emma Goldman (June 27, 1869 – May 14, 1940) was a Russian-born anarchist political activist and writer. She played a pivotal role in the development of anarchist political philosophy in North America and Europe in the first half of the ...
*
Grace Duffield Goodwin
Grace may refer to:
Places United States
* Grace, Idaho, a city
* Grace (CTA station), Chicago Transit Authority's Howard Line, Illinois
* Little Goose Creek (Kentucky), location of Grace post office
* Grace, Carroll County, Missouri, an uninco ...
*
Gertrud Haldimann
*
Annie Riley Hale
Annie Riley Hale (May 1, 1859 – December 26, 1944) was an American teacher, author, and social critic. In her lifetime she was known for her criticism of Theodore Roosevelt and her anti-suffrage and anti-vaccine activity.
Family
Annie Ril ...
*
Sarah Josepha Hale
Sarah Josepha Buell Hale (October 24, 1788April 30, 1879) was an American writer, activist, and editor of ''Godey's Lady's Book''. She was the author of the nursery rhyme "Mary Had a Little Lamb". Hale famously campaigned for the creation of the ...
*
Ethel Bertha Harrison
Ethel Bertha Harrison (27 October 1851 – 1916) was a British anti-suffrage essayist.
Life
Harrison was born in London in 1851 to a merchant William Harrison and Anne Tonge Lake. They were a rich couple owing to trade with the West Indies and ...
(known as. Mrs. Frederic Harrison)
*
Mary Hilliard Hinton
Mary Hilliard Hinton (June 7, 1869 – January 6, 1961) was an American painter, historian, clubwoman, and anti-suffragist. She was a leader in North Carolina's Anti-suffragism, anti-suffragist movement and an outspoken white supremacist, co-fou ...
*
Mary, Countess of Ilchester
Mary Fox-Strangways, Countess of Ilchester (born Mary Eleanor Anne Dawson; 1852–1935) was an Anglo-Irish noblewoman, an anti-suffragist and a leading figure in London society. She was the wife of Henry Fox-Strangways, 5th Earl of Ilchester.
L ...
*
Helen Kendrick Johnson
Helen Kendrick Johnson (January 4, 1844 – January 3, 1917) was an American writer, poet, and prominent activist opposing the women's suffrage movement.
Early life
Helen Kendrick Johnson was born in Hamilton, New York to her father, Asahel Cl ...
*
Ethel Tawse Jollie
Ethel Maud Tawse Jollie (8 March 1874 – 21 September 1950; née Cookson; widowed Colquhoun) was a writer and political activist in Southern Rhodesia who was the first female parliamentarian in the British overseas empire.
Career
Cookson was b ...
*
Adeline Knapp
Adeline E. Knapp (March 14, 1860 – June 6, 1909) was an American journalist, author, social activist, environmentalist and educator, who is today remembered largely for her tempestuous lesbian relationship with Charlotte Perkins Gilman. In her ...
*
Margaret Elizabeth Leigh
*
Eliza Lynn Linton
Eliza Lynn Linton (10 February 1822 – 14 July 1898) was the first female salaried journalist in Britain and the author of over 20 novels. Despite her path-breaking role as an independent woman, many of her essays took a strong anti-feminist s ...
*
Nellie Locke
*
Miss Lonsdale
*
Violet Markham
Violet Rosa Markham (October 1872 – 2 February 1959) was a writer, social reformer, campaigner against women's suffrage and administrator. She grew up near Chesterfield, Derbyshire. Actively involved in community and welfare work, she held ...
*
Charlotte Elizabeth McKay
Charlotte Elizabeth McKay (née Johnson; August 2, 1818 – April 10, 1894) was an American editor, Union Army nurse, and an anti-suffragist. She worked as a field nurse during the American Civil War, receiving a Kearny Cross from the 17th Maine ...
*
Annie Nathan Meyer
Annie Nathan Meyer (February 19, 1867 – September 23, 1951) was an American author, an anti-suffragist, and a promoter of higher education for women who founded Barnard College. Her sister was the activist Maud Nathan and her nephew the autho ...
*
Duchess of Montrose
*
Jane Marsh Parker
Jane Marsh Parker (, Marsh; pen name, Jenny Marsh Parker; June 16, 1836 – March 13, 1913) was an American author and historian of the long nineteenth century. She was a frequent contributor to ''The Churchman'' and other publications of the Pr ...
*
Gladys Pott
*
Molly Elliot Seawell
Molly Elliot Seawell (October 23, 1860 – November 15, 1916), an early American historian and writer, was a descendant of the Seawells of Virginia and a niece of POTUS, President John Tyler. Reared upon a large plantation, her education includ ...
*
Ida Tarbell
Ida Minerva Tarbell (November 5, 1857January 6, 1944) was an American writer, Investigative journalism, investigative journalist, List of biographers, biographer and lecturer. She was one of the leading muckrakers of the Progressive Era of th ...
*
Alice Hay Wadsworth Alice Evelyn Hay Wadsworth (1880 - May 13, 1960) was an American anti-suffrage leader during the early 20th century. She was daughter of John Hay, 37th United States Secretary of State, and Clara L. Stone and was married to U.S. Senator James Wolcot ...
*
Mary Augusta Ward
Mary Augusta Ward (''née'' Arnold; 11 June 1851 – 24 March 1920) was a British literature, British novelist who wrote under her married name as Mrs Humphry Ward.
She worked to improve education for the poor and she became the founding Pres ...
See also
*
Antifeminism
Antifeminism, also spelled anti-feminism, is opposition to some or all forms of feminism. In the late 19th century and early 20th century, antifeminists opposed particular policy proposals for women's rights, such as the right to vote, educat ...
*
Timeline of women's suffrage
Women's suffrage
Women's suffrage is the right of women to vote in elections. Beginning in the start of the 18th century, some people sought to change voting laws to allow women to vote. Liberal political parties would go on to grant ...
*
Women's suffrage
Women's suffrage is the right of women to vote in elections. Beginning in the start of the 18th century, some people sought to change voting laws to allow women to vote. Liberal political parties would go on to grant women the right to vot ...
*
Who Needs Feminism
''Who Needs Feminism?'' is a social media photo campaign started by students at Duke University in 2012. The campaign attempted to shed light on misconceptions about feminism and to explore the continued need and relevance of feminism in today's ...
*
Women Against Feminism
References
Citations
Sources
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
Other sources
*''The Times'', Wednesday, Jul 22, 1908; pg. 13; Issue 38705; col D
*''The Times'', Thursday, Dec 08, 1910; pg. 9; Issue 39450; col E: "Woman Suffrage. The Anti-Suffrage Movement, A New Organization."
Further reading
* Benjamin, Anne M. ''A History of the Anti-Suffrage Movement in the United States from 1895 to 1920: Women Against Equality.'' Lewiston: The Edwin Mellen Press, 1992.
* Jablonsky, Thomas J, "The Home, Heaven, and Mother Party: Female Anti-Suffragists in the United States, 1868–1920." Brooklyn: Carlson, 1994
* Camhi, Jane Jerome. ''Women Against Women: American Anti-Suffragism, 1880–1920.'' Brooklyn, N.Y.: Carlson Pub., 1994.
* Goodier, Susan. ''No Votes for Women: The New York State Anti-Suffrage Movement'' (University of Illinois Press; 2013) 272 pages; argues that antis were not against women's rights, but saw the female domestic role as threatened by masculine political responsibilities.
* Harrison, Brian Howard. ''Separate Spheres : The Opposition to Women’s Suffrage in Britain.'' London : Croom Helm, 1978.
Primary sources
*
Almroth Wright
Sir Almroth Edward Wright (10 August 1861 – 30 April 1947) was a British bacteriologist and immunologist.
He is notable for developing a system of anti-typhoid fever inoculation, recognizing early on that antibiotics would create resistant ...
. ''The Unexpurgated Case Against Woman Suffrage.'' London: Constable & Co. Ltd, 1913. Available online:
External links
*{{Commons category-inline, Anti-suffragism
19th-century introductions
Criticism of feminism
Social theories
Organizations established in 1908
Anti-suffragist organizations
Women's organisations based in the United Kingdom