The ankle, or the talocrural region,
or the jumping bone (informal) is the area where the
foot
The foot ( : feet) is an anatomical structure found in many vertebrates. It is the terminal portion of a limb which bears weight and allows locomotion. In many animals with feet, the foot is a separate organ at the terminal part of the leg made ...
and the
leg
A leg is a weight-bearing and animal locomotion, locomotive anatomical structure, usually having a columnar shape. During locomotion, legs function as "extensible struts". The combination of movements at all joints can be modeled as a single ...
meet. The ankle includes three
joint
A joint or articulation (or articular surface) is the connection made between bones, ossicles, or other hard structures in the body which link an animal's skeletal system into a functional whole.Saladin, Ken. Anatomy & Physiology. 7th ed. McGraw ...
s: the ankle joint proper or talocrural joint, the
subtalar joint
In human anatomy, the subtalar joint, also known as the
talocalcaneal joint, is a joint of the foot. It occurs at the meeting point of the Talus bone, talus and the calcaneus.
The joint is classed structurally as a synovial joint, and functional ...
, and the
inferior tibiofibular joint
The distal tibiofibular joint (tibiofibular syndesmosis) is formed by the rough, convex surface of the medial side of the distal end of the fibula, and a rough concave surface on the lateral side of the tibia.
Below, to the extent of about 4&n ...
.
The movements produced at this joint are dorsiflexion and
plantarflexion
Motion, the process of movement, is described using specific anatomical terminology, anatomical terms. Motion includes movement of Organ (anatomy), organs, joints, Limb (anatomy), limbs, and specific sections of the body. The terminology used de ...
of the foot. In common usage, the term ankle refers exclusively to the ankle region. In medical terminology, "ankle" (without qualifiers) can refer broadly to the region or specifically to the talocrural joint.
The main bones of the ankle region are the
talus (in the foot), and the
tibia
The tibia (; ), also known as the shinbone or shankbone, is the larger, stronger, and anterior (frontal) of the two bones in the leg below the knee in vertebrates (the other being the fibula, behind and to the outside of the tibia); it connects ...
and
fibula
The fibula or calf bone is a leg bone on the lateral side of the tibia, to which it is connected above and below. It is the smaller of the two bones and, in proportion to its length, the most slender of all the long bones. Its upper extremity is ...
(in the leg). The talocrural joint is a
synovial hinge joint
A hinge joint (ginglymus or ginglymoid) is a bone joint in which the articular surfaces are molded to each other in such a manner as to permit motion only in one plane. According to one classification system they are said to be uniaxial (having ...
that connects the distal ends of the tibia and fibula in the lower limb with the proximal end of the talus. The articulation between the tibia and the talus bears more weight than that between the smaller fibula and the talus.
Structure
Region
The ankle region is found at the junction of the
leg
A leg is a weight-bearing and animal locomotion, locomotive anatomical structure, usually having a columnar shape. During locomotion, legs function as "extensible struts". The combination of movements at all joints can be modeled as a single ...
and the
foot
The foot ( : feet) is an anatomical structure found in many vertebrates. It is the terminal portion of a limb which bears weight and allows locomotion. In many animals with feet, the foot is a separate organ at the terminal part of the leg made ...
. It extends downwards (
distally
Standard anatomical terms of location are used to unambiguously describe the anatomy of animals, including humans. The terms, typically derived from Latin or Greek roots, describe something in its standard anatomical position. This position pro ...
) from the narrowest point of the lower leg and includes the parts of the foot closer to the body (proximal) to the
heel
The heel is the prominence at the posterior end of the foot. It is based on the projection of one bone, the calcaneus or heel bone, behind the articulation of the bones of the lower Human leg, leg.
Structure
To distribute the compressive for ...
and upper surface (
dorsum) of the foot.
Ankle joint
The talocrural joint is the only mortise and tenon joint in the human body,
the term likening the skeletal structure to the
woodworking joint
Joinery is a part of woodworking that involves joining pieces of wood, engineered lumber, or synthetic substitutes (such as laminate), to produce more complex items. Some woodworking joints employ mechanical fasteners, bindings, or adhesives, ...
of the same name. The bony architecture of the ankle consists of three bones: the
tibia
The tibia (; ), also known as the shinbone or shankbone, is the larger, stronger, and anterior (frontal) of the two bones in the leg below the knee in vertebrates (the other being the fibula, behind and to the outside of the tibia); it connects ...
, the
fibula
The fibula or calf bone is a leg bone on the lateral side of the tibia, to which it is connected above and below. It is the smaller of the two bones and, in proportion to its length, the most slender of all the long bones. Its upper extremity is ...
, and the
talus. The articular surface of the tibia may be referred to as the ''plafond'' (
French
French (french: français(e), link=no) may refer to:
* Something of, from, or related to France
** French language, which originated in France, and its various dialects and accents
** French people, a nation and ethnic group identified with Franc ...
for "ceiling").
The
medial malleolus
A malleolus is the bony prominence on each side of the human ankle.
Each leg is supported by two bones, the tibia on the inner side (medial) of the leg and the fibula on the outer side (lateral) of the leg. The medial malleolus is the promine ...
is a bony process extending distally off the medial tibia. The distal-most aspect of the fibula is called the
lateral malleolus
A malleolus is the bony prominence on each side of the human ankle.
Each leg is supported by two bones, the tibia on the inner side (medial) of the leg and the fibula on the outer side (lateral) of the leg. The medial malleolus is the promine ...
. Together, the malleoli, along with their supporting ligaments, stabilize the talus underneath the tibia.
Because the motion of the subtalar joint provides a significant contribution to positioning the foot, some authors will describe it as the lower ankle joint, and call the talocrural joint the upper ankle joint.
Dorsiflexion and Plantarflexion are the
movements
Movement may refer to:
Common uses
* Movement (clockwork), the internal mechanism of a timepiece
* Motion, commonly referred to as movement
Arts, entertainment, and media
Literature
* "Movement" (short story), a short story by Nancy Fu ...
that take place in the ankle joint. When the foot is plantar flexed, the ankle joint also allows some movements of side to side gliding, rotation, adduction, and abduction.
The bony arch formed by the tibial plafond and the two malleoli is referred to as the ankle "
mortise" (or talar mortise). The mortise is a rectangular socket.
The ankle is composed of three joints: the talocrural joint (also called talotibial joint, tibiotalar joint, talar mortise, talar joint), the
subtalar joint
In human anatomy, the subtalar joint, also known as the
talocalcaneal joint, is a joint of the foot. It occurs at the meeting point of the Talus bone, talus and the calcaneus.
The joint is classed structurally as a synovial joint, and functional ...
(also called talocalcaneal), and the
Inferior tibiofibular joint
The distal tibiofibular joint (tibiofibular syndesmosis) is formed by the rough, convex surface of the medial side of the distal end of the fibula, and a rough concave surface on the lateral side of the tibia.
Below, to the extent of about 4&n ...
.
The joint surface of all bones in the ankle are covered with articular
cartilage
Cartilage is a resilient and smooth type of connective tissue. In tetrapods, it covers and protects the ends of long bones at the joints as articular cartilage, and is a structural component of many body parts including the rib cage, the neck an ...
.
The distances between the bones in the ankle are as follows:
*Talus - medial malleolus : 1.70 ± 0.13 mm
*Talus - tibial plafond: 2.04 ± 0.29 mm
*Talus - lateral malleolus: 2.13 ± 0.20 mm
Decreased distances indicate
osteoarthritis
Osteoarthritis (OA) is a type of degenerative joint disease that results from breakdown of joint cartilage and underlying bone which affects 1 in 7 adults in the United States. It is believed to be the fourth leading cause of disability in the w ...
.
Ligaments
The ankle joint is bound by the strong
deltoid ligament
The deltoid ligament (or medial ligament of talocrural joint) is a strong, flat, triangular band, attached, above, to the apex and anterior and posterior borders of the medial malleolus.
The deltoid ligament is composed of 4 fibers:
1. Anterior ti ...
and three lateral ligaments: the
anterior talofibular ligament
The anterior talofibular ligament is a ligament in the ankle.
It passes from the anterior margin of the fibular malleolus, anteriorly and laterally, to the talus bone, in front of its lateral articular facet. It is one of the lateral ligaments ...
, the
posterior talofibular ligament
The posterior talofibular ligament is a ligament that connects the fibula to the talus bone. It runs almost horizontally from the malleolar fossa of the lateral malleolus of the fibula to the lateral tubercle on the posterior surface of the talus ...
, and the
calcaneofibular ligament
The calcaneofibular ligament is a narrow, rounded cord, running from the tip of the lateral malleolus of the fibula downward and slightly backward to a tubercle on the lateral surface of the calcaneus. It is part of the lateral collateral ligament ...
.
* The ''deltoid ligament'' supports the medial side of the joint, and is attached at the
medial malleolus
A malleolus is the bony prominence on each side of the human ankle.
Each leg is supported by two bones, the tibia on the inner side (medial) of the leg and the fibula on the outer side (lateral) of the leg. The medial malleolus is the promine ...
of the tibia and connect in four places to the
talar shelf Talar դալար is a Western Armenian name for females. It's meaning is symbolic of the Evergreen Tree.
The talar or talaar ( fa, تالار) is the throne hall of the Persian monarch that is open to the public. It includes a throne carved ...
of the
calcaneus
In humans and many other primates, the calcaneus (; from the Latin ''calcaneus'' or ''calcaneum'', meaning heel) or heel bone is a bone of the tarsus of the foot which constitutes the heel. In some other animals, it is the point of the hock.
S ...
,
calcaneonavicular ligament
The plantar calcaneonavicular ligament (also known as the spring ligament or spring ligament complex) is a complex of three ligaments on the underside of the foot that connect the calcaneus with the navicular bone.
Structure
The plantar calcaneo ...
, the
navicular tuberosity
The navicular bone is a small bone found in the feet of most mammals.
Human anatomy
The navicular bone in humans is one of the tarsal bones, found in the foot. Its name derives from the human bone's resemblance to a small boat, caused by the ...
, and to the medial surface of the talus.
* The ''anterior'' and ''posterior talofibular ligaments'' support the lateral side of the joint from the
lateral malleolus
A malleolus is the bony prominence on each side of the human ankle.
Each leg is supported by two bones, the tibia on the inner side (medial) of the leg and the fibula on the outer side (lateral) of the leg. The medial malleolus is the promine ...
of the fibula to the dorsal and ventral ends of the talus.
* The ''calcaneofibular ligament'' is attached at the lateral malleolus and to the lateral surface of the calcaneus.
Though it does not span the ankle joint itself, the syndesmotic ligament makes an important contribution to the stability of the ankle. This ligament spans the
syndesmosis
In anatomy, fibrous joints are joints connected by fibrous tissue, consisting mainly of collagen. These are fixed joints where bones are united by a layer of white fibrous tissue of varying thickness. In the skull the joints between the bones are ...
, i.e. the articulation between the medial aspect of the distal fibula and the lateral aspect of the distal tibia. An isolated injury to this ligament is often called a
high ankle sprain
A high ankle sprain, also known as a syndesmotic ankle sprain (SAS), is a sprain of the syndesmotic ligaments that connect the tibia and fibula in the lower leg, thereby creating a mortise and tenon joint for the ankle. High ankle sprains are desc ...
.
The bony architecture of the ankle joint is most stable in
dorsiflexion
Motion, the process of movement, is described using specific anatomical terms. Motion includes movement of organs, joints, limbs, and specific sections of the body. The terminology used describes this motion according to its direction relative ...
. Thus, a
sprained ankle
A sprained ankle, also known as a twisted ankle or rolled ankle, is an injury where sprain occurs on one or more ligaments of the ankle. It is the most common injury to occur in ball sports, such as basketball, volleyball, football, and racquet s ...
is more likely to occur when the ankle is plantar-flexed, as ligamentous support is more important in this position. The classic ankle sprain involves the
anterior talofibular ligament
The anterior talofibular ligament is a ligament in the ankle.
It passes from the anterior margin of the fibular malleolus, anteriorly and laterally, to the talus bone, in front of its lateral articular facet. It is one of the lateral ligaments ...
(ATFL), which is also the most commonly injured ligament during
inversion
Inversion or inversions may refer to:
Arts
* , a French gay magazine (1924/1925)
* ''Inversion'' (artwork), a 2005 temporary sculpture in Houston, Texas
* Inversion (music), a term with various meanings in music theory and musical set theory
* ...
sprains. Another ligament that can be injured in a severe ankle sprain is the
calcaneofibular ligament
The calcaneofibular ligament is a narrow, rounded cord, running from the tip of the lateral malleolus of the fibula downward and slightly backward to a tubercle on the lateral surface of the calcaneus. It is part of the lateral collateral ligament ...
.
Retinacula, tendons and their synovial sheaths, vessels, and nerves
A number of tendons pass through the ankle region. Bands of connective tissue called ''retinacula'' (singular: ''retinaculum'') allow the tendons to exert force across the angle between the leg and foot without lifting away from the angle, a process called bowstringing.
The
superior extensor retinaculum of foot
The superior extensor retinaculum of the foot (transverse crural ligament) is the upper part of the extensor retinaculum of foot which extends from the ankle to the heelbone.
The superior extensor retinaculum binds down the tendons of extensor ...
extends between the anterior (forward) surfaces of the tibia and fibula near their lower (distal) ends. It contains the
anterior tibial artery
The anterior tibial artery is an artery of the leg. It carries blood to the anterior compartment of the leg and dorsum (biology), dorsal surface of the foot, from the popliteal artery.
Structure
Course
The anterior tibial artery is a branch o ...
and
vein
Veins are blood vessels in humans and most other animals that carry blood towards the heart. Most veins carry deoxygenated blood from the tissues back to the heart; exceptions are the pulmonary and umbilical veins, both of which carry oxygenated b ...
and the tendons of the
tibialis anterior muscle
The tibialis anterior muscle is a muscle in humans that originates along the upper two-thirds of the lateral (outside) surface of the tibia and inserts into the medial cuneiform and first metatarsal bones of the foot. It acts to dorsiflex and inve ...
within its tendon sheath and the unsheathed tendons of
extensor hallucis longus
The extensor hallucis longus muscle is a thin skeletal muscle, situated between the tibialis anterior and the extensor digitorum longus. It extends the big toe and dorsiflects the foot. It also assists with foot eversion and inversion.
Struct ...
and
extensor digitorum longus
The extensor digitorum longus is a pennate muscle, situated at the lateral part of the front of the leg.
Origin and insertion
It arises from the lateral condyle of the tibia; from the upper three-quarters of the anterior surface of the body of t ...
muscles. The
deep peroneal nerve
The deep fibular nerve (also known as deep peroneal nerve) begins at the bifurcation of the common fibular nerve between the fibula and upper part of the fibularis longus, passes infero-medially, deep to the extensor digitorum longus, to the anteri ...
passes under the retinaculum while the
superficial peroneal nerve
The superficial fibular nerve (also known as superficial peroneal nerve) innervates the fibularis longus and fibularis brevis muscles and the skin over the antero-lateral aspect of the leg along with the greater part of the dorsum of the foot (wit ...
is outside of it. The
inferior extensor retinaculum of foot
The inferior extensor retinaculum of the foot (cruciate crural ligament, lower part of anterior annular ligament) is a Y-shaped band placed in front of the ankle-joint, the stem of the Y being attached laterally to the upper surface of the cal ...
is a Y-shaped structure. Its lateral attachment is on the calcaneus, and the band travels towards the anterior tibia where it is attached and blends with the superior extensor retinaculum. Along with that course, the band divides and another segment attaches to the
plantar aponeurosis
The plantar fascia is the thick connective tissue (aponeurosis) which supports the arch on the bottom (plantar side) of the foot. It runs from the tuberosity of the calcaneus (heel bone) forward to the heads of the metatarsal bones (the bone betw ...
. The tendons which pass through the superior extensor retinaculum are all sheathed along their paths through the inferior extensor retinaculum and the tendon of the
fibularis tertius muscle
In human anatomy, the fibularis tertius (also known as the peroneus tertius) is a muscle in the anterior compartment of the leg. It acts to tilt the sole of the foot away from the midline of the body ( eversion) and to pull the foot upward towa ...
is also contained within the retinaculum.
The
flexor retinaculum of foot
The flexor retinaculum of foot (laciniate ligament, internal annular ligament) is a strong fibrous band in the foot.
Structure
The flexor retinaculum of the foot extends from the medial malleolus above, to the calcaneus below. This converts a s ...
extends from the medial malleolus to the medical process of the calcaneus, and the following structures in order from medial to lateral: the tendon of the
tibialis posterior muscle
The tibialis posterior muscle is the most central of all the leg muscles, and is located in the deep posterior compartment of the leg. It is the key stabilizing muscle of the lower leg.
Structure
The tibialis posterior muscle originates on the i ...
, the tendon of the
flexor digitorum longus muscle
The flexor digitorum longus muscle is situated on the tibial side of the leg. At its origin it is thin and pointed, but it gradually increases in size as it descends. It serves to flex the second, third, fourth, and fifth toes.
Structure
The fle ...
, the
posterior tibial artery
The posterior tibial artery of the lower limb is an artery that carries blood to the posterior compartment of the leg and plantar surface of the foot. It branches from the popliteal artery via the tibial-fibular trunk.
Structure
The posterior ...
and
vein
Veins are blood vessels in humans and most other animals that carry blood towards the heart. Most veins carry deoxygenated blood from the tissues back to the heart; exceptions are the pulmonary and umbilical veins, both of which carry oxygenated b ...
, the
tibial nerve
The tibial nerve is a branch of the sciatic nerve. The tibial nerve passes through the popliteal fossa to pass below the arch of soleus.
Structure Popliteal fossa
The tibial nerve is the larger terminal branch of the sciatic nerve with root val ...
, and the tendon of the
flexor hallucis longus muscle
The flexor hallucis longus muscle (FHL) is one of the three deep muscles of the posterior compartment of the leg that attaches to the plantar surface of the distal phalanx of the great toe. The other deep muscles are the flexor digitorum longus an ...
.
The
fibular retinacula
The fibular retinacula (also known as peroneal retinacula) are fibrous retaining bands that bind down the tendons of the fibularis longus and fibularis brevis muscles as they run across the side of the ankle. (''Retinaculum'' is Latin for "retaine ...
hold the tendons of the
fibularis longus
In human anatomy, the fibularis longus (also known as peroneus longus) is a superficial muscle in the lateral compartment of the leg. It acts to tilt the sole of the foot away from the midline of the body ( eversion) and to extend the foot downwa ...
and
fibularis brevis
In human anatomy, the fibularis brevis (or peroneus brevis) is a muscle that lies underneath the fibularis longus within the lateral compartment of the leg. It acts to tilt the sole of the foot away from the midline of the body (eversion) and to e ...
along the lateral aspect of the ankle region. The superior fibular retinaculum extends from the deep transverse fascia of the leg and lateral malleolus to calcaneus. The inferior fibular retinaculum is a continuous extension from the inferior extensor retinaculum to the calcaneus.
Mechanoreceptors
Mechanoreceptors of the ankle send proprioceptive sensory input to the central nervous system (CNS). Muscle spindles are thought to be the main type of mechanoreceptor responsible for proprioceptive attributes from the ankle. The muscle spindle gives feedback to the CNS system on the current length of the muscle it innervates and to any change in length that occurs.
It was hypothesized that muscle spindle feedback from the ankle dorsiflexors played the most substantial role in
proprioception
Proprioception ( ), also referred to as kinaesthesia (or kinesthesia), is the sense of self-movement, force, and body position. It is sometimes described as the "sixth sense".
Proprioception is mediated by proprioceptors, mechanosensory neurons ...
relative to other muscular receptors that cross at the ankle joint. However, due to the multi-planar range of motion at the ankle joint there is not one group of muscles that is responsible for this. This helps to explain the relationship between the ankle and balance.
In 2011, a relationship between proprioception of the ankle and balance performance was seen in the CNS. This was done by using a fMRI machine in order to see the changes in brain activity when the receptors of the ankle are stimulated. This implicates the ankle directly with the ability to balance. Further research is needed in order to see to what extent does the ankle affect balance.
Function
Historically, the role of the ankle in locomotion has been discussed by
Aristotle
Aristotle (; grc-gre, Ἀριστοτέλης ''Aristotélēs'', ; 384–322 BC) was a Greek philosopher and polymath during the Classical period in Ancient Greece. Taught by Plato, he was the founder of the Peripatetic school of phil ...
and
Leonardo da Vinci
Leonardo di ser Piero da Vinci (15 April 14522 May 1519) was an Italian polymath of the High Renaissance who was active as a painter, Drawing, draughtsman, engineer, scientist, theorist, sculptor, and architect. While his fame initially res ...
. There is no question that ankle push-off is a significant force in
human gait
A gait is a pattern of limb movements made during locomotion. Human gaits are the various ways in which humans can move, either naturally or as a result of specialized training. Human gait is defined as bipedal, biphasic forward propulsion of ...
, but how much energy is used in leg swing as opposed to advancing the whole-body
center of mass
In physics, the center of mass of a distribution of mass in space (sometimes referred to as the balance point) is the unique point where the weighted relative position of the distributed mass sums to zero. This is the point to which a force may ...
is not clear.
Clinical significance
Traumatic injury
Of all major joints, the ankle is the most commonly injured. If the outside surface of the foot is twisted under the leg during weight bearing, the
lateral ligament, especially the
anterior talofibular portion, is subject to tearing (a
sprain
A sprain, also known as a torn ligament, is an acute soft tissue injury of the ligaments within a joint, often caused by a sudden movement abruptly forcing the joint to exceed its functional range of motion. Ligaments are tough, inelastic fibers ...
) as it is weaker than the medial ligament and it resists
inward rotation
Motion, the process of movement, is described using specific anatomical terms. Motion includes movement of organs, joints, limbs, and specific sections of the body. The terminology used describes this motion according to its direction relative ...
of the talocrural joint.
Fractures
Imaging
The initial evaluation of suspected ankle pathology is usually by
projectional radiography
Projectional radiography, also known as conventional radiography, is a form of radiography and medical imaging that produces two-dimensional images by x-ray radiation. The image acquisition is generally performed by radiographers, and the images ...
("X-ray").
![X-ray of frontal tibiotalar surface angle (TTS)](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/1d/X-ray_of_frontal_tibiotalar_surface_angle_%28TTS%29.jpg)
Varus or valgus deformity, if suspected, can be measured with the frontal tibiotalar surface angle (TTS), formed by the mid-longitudinal tibial axis (such as through a line bisecting the tibia at 8 and 13 cm above the tibial plafond) and the talar surface.
An angle of less than 84 degrees is regarded as ''talipes varus'', and an angle of more than 94 degrees is regarded as ''talipes valgus''.
For ligamentous injury, there are 3 main landmarks on X-rays: The first is the ''tibiofibular clear space'', the horizontal distance from the lateral border of the posterior tibial malleolus to the medial border of the fibula, with greater than 5 mm being abnormal. The second is ''tibiofibular overlap'', the horizontal distance between the medial border of the fibula and the lateral border of the anterior tibial prominence, with less than 10 mm being abnormal. The final measurement is the ''medial clear space'', the distance between the lateral aspect of the medial malleolus and the medial border of the talus at the level of the talar dome, with a measurement greater than 4 mm being abnormal. Loss of any of these normal anatomic spaces can indirectly reflect ligamentous injury or occult fracture, and can be followed by MRI or CT.
Abnormalities
Clubfoot
Clubfoot is a birth defect where one or both feet are rotated inward and downward. Congenital clubfoot is the most common congenital malformation of the foot with an incidence of 1 per 1000 births. In approximately 50% of cases, clubfoot aff ...
or talipes equinovarus, which occurs in one to two of every 1,000 live births, involves multiple abnormalities of the foot.
Equinus refers to the downard deflection of the ankle, and is named for the walking on the toes in the manner of a horse.
This does not occur because it is accompanied by an inward rotation of the foot (
varus deformity Varus may refer to:
* Var River or Varus, a river in France
* Stura di Lanzo or Varus, a river in Italy
* Varus deformity, a medical term for the inward angulation of the distal segment of a bone or joint
** Coxa vara, affecting the hip
** Genu varu ...
), which untreated, results in walking on the sides of the feet. Treatment may involve manipulation and casting or surgery.
Ankle joint equinus, normally in adults, relates to restricted ankle joint range of motion(ROM). Calf muscle stretching exercises are normally helpful to increase the ankle joint dorsiflexion and used to manage clinical symptoms resulting from ankle equinus.
Occasionally a human ankle has a ball-and-socket ankle joint and fusion of the talo-navicular joint.
History
The word ankle or ancle is common, in various forms, to
Germanic languages
The Germanic languages are a branch of the Indo-European language family spoken natively by a population of about 515 million people mainly in Europe, North America, Oceania and Southern Africa. The most widely spoken Germanic language, Engli ...
, probably connected in origin with the
Latin
Latin (, or , ) is a classical language belonging to the Italic branch of the Indo-European languages. Latin was originally a dialect spoken in the lower Tiber area (then known as Latium) around present-day Rome, but through the power of the ...
, or
Greek
Greek may refer to:
Greece
Anything of, from, or related to Greece, a country in Southern Europe:
*Greeks, an ethnic group.
*Greek language, a branch of the Indo-European language family.
**Proto-Greek language, the assumed last common ancestor ...
, meaning bent.
Other animals
Evolution
It has been suggested that dexterous control of toes has been lost in favour of a more precise voluntary control of the ankle joint.
See also
*
Foot
The foot ( : feet) is an anatomical structure found in many vertebrates. It is the terminal portion of a limb which bears weight and allows locomotion. In many animals with feet, the foot is a separate organ at the terminal part of the leg made ...
*
Leg
A leg is a weight-bearing and animal locomotion, locomotive anatomical structure, usually having a columnar shape. During locomotion, legs function as "extensible struts". The combination of movements at all joints can be modeled as a single ...
Footnotes
References
*
*
*
Additional images
File:Slide3Bubu.JPG, Dorsum of Foot. Ankle joint. Deep dissection
File:Slide2bubu.JPG, Dorsum of Foot. Ankle joint. Deep dissection
File:Slide2tat.JPG, Ankle joint. Deep dissection. Anterior view.
File:Slide2coco.JPG, Dorsum of Foot. Ankle joint. Deep dissection
External links
*
*
{{Authority control
Foot
*Ankle
Lower limb anatomy