Stages of late M phase in a vertebrate cell

Anaphase () is the stage of

mitosis In cell biology, mitosis () is a part of the cell cycle in which replicated chromosomes are separated into two new nuclei. Cell division by mitosis gives rise to genetically identical cells in which the total number of chromosomes is mainta ...

after the process of

metaphase Metaphase ( and ) is a stage of mitosis in the eukaryotic cell cycle in which chromosomes are at their second-most condensed and coiled stage (they are at their most condensed in anaphase). These chromosomes, carrying genetic information, align ...

, when replicated

chromosome A chromosome is a long DNA molecule with part or all of the genetic material of an organism. In most chromosomes the very long thin DNA fibers are coated with packaging proteins; in eukaryotic cells the most important of these proteins are ...

s are split and the newly-copied chromosomes (daughter

chromatid A chromatid (Greek ''khrōmat-'' 'color' + ''-id'') is one half of a duplicated chromosome. Before replication, one chromosome is composed of one DNA molecule. In replication, the DNA molecule is copied, and the two molecules are known as chro ...

s) are moved to opposite poles of the cell.

Chromosome A chromosome is a long DNA molecule with part or all of the genetic material of an organism. In most chromosomes the very long thin DNA fibers are coated with packaging proteins; in eukaryotic cells the most important of these proteins are ...

s also reach their overall maximum condensation in late anaphase, to help

segregation and the re-formation of the nucleus. Anaphase starts when the

anaphase promoting complex Anaphase-promoting complex (also called the cyclosome or APC/C) is an E3 ubiquitin ligase that marks target cell cycle proteins for degradation by the 26S proteasome. The APC/C is a large complex of 11–13 subunit proteins, including a cullin ...

marks an inhibitory chaperone called

securin Securin is a protein involved in control of the metaphase-anaphase transition and anaphase onset. Following bi-orientation of chromosome pairs and inactivation of the spindle checkpoint system, the underlying regulatory system, which includes secu ...

for destruction by ubiquinylating it. Securin is a protein which inhibits a

protease A protease (also called a peptidase, proteinase, or proteolytic enzyme) is an enzyme that catalyzes (increases reaction rate or "speeds up") proteolysis, breaking down proteins into smaller polypeptides or single amino acids, and spurring the ...

known as

separase Separase, also known as separin, is a cysteine protease responsible for triggering anaphase by hydrolysing cohesin, which is the protein responsible for binding sister chromatids during the early stage of anaphase. In humans, separin is encoded ...

. The destruction of securin unleashes separase which then breaks down

cohesin Cohesin is a protein complex that mediates sister chromatid cohesion, homologous recombination, and DNA looping. Cohesin is formed of SMC3, SMC1, SCC1 and SCC3 ( SA1 or SA2 in humans). Cohesin holds sister chromatids together after DNA rep ...

, a protein responsible for holding sister chromatids together. At this point, three subclasses of

microtubule Microtubules are polymers of tubulin that form part of the cytoskeleton and provide structure and shape to eukaryotic cells. Microtubules can be as long as 50 micrometres, as wide as 23 to 27 nm and have an inner diameter between 11 an ...

unique to mitosis are involved in creating the forces necessary to separate the chromatids: kinetochore microtubules, interpolar microtubules, and astral microtubules. The centromeres are split, and the sister chromatids are pulled toward the poles by kinetochore microtubules. They take on a V-shape or Y-shape as they are pulled to either pole. While the chromosomes are drawn to each side of the cell, interpolar microtubules and astral microtubules generate forces that stretch the cell into an oval. Once anaphase is complete, the cell moves into

telophase Telophase () is the final stage in both meiosis and mitosis in a eukaryotic cell. During telophase, the effects of prophase and prometaphase (the nucleolus and nuclear membrane disintegrating) are reversed. As chromosomes reach the cell poles, a ...

Phases

Anaphase is characterized by two distinct motions. The first of these, anaphase A, moves chromosomes to either pole of a dividing cell (marked by

centrosome In cell biology, the centrosome (Latin centrum 'center' + Greek sōma 'body') (archaically cytocentre) is an organelle that serves as the main microtubule organizing center (MTOC) of the animal cell, as well as a regulator of cell-cycle progres ...

s, from which mitotic microtubules are generated and organised). The movement for this is primarily generated by the action of kinetochores, and a subclass of microtubule called kinetochore microtubules. The second motion, anaphase B, involves the separation of these poles from each other. The movement for this is primarily generated by the action of interpolar microtubules and astral microtubules.

Anaphase A

A combination of different forces have been observed acting on chromatids in anaphase A, but the primary force is exerted centrally. Microtubules attach to the midpoint of chromosomes (the

centromere The centromere links a pair of sister chromatids together during cell division. This constricted region of chromosome connects the sister chromatids, creating a short arm (p) and a long arm (q) on the chromatids. During mitosis, spindle fibers a ...

) via protein complexes (

kinetochore A kinetochore (, ) is a disc-shaped protein structure associated with duplicated chromatids in eukaryotic cells where the spindle fibers attach during cell division to pull sister chromatids apart. The kinetochore assembles on the centromere and ...

s). The attached microtubules depolymerise and shorten, which together with motor proteins creates movement that pulls chromosomes towards centrosomes located at each pole of the cell.

Anaphase B

The second part of anaphase is driven by its own distinct mechanisms. Force is generated by several actions. Interpolar microtubules begin at each centrosome and join at the equator of the dividing cell. They push against one another, causing each centrosome to move further apart. Meanwhile, astral microtubules begin at each centrosome and join with the cell membrane. This allows them to pull each centrosome closer to the cell membrane. Movement created by these microtubules is generated by a combination of microtubule growth or shrinking, and by motor proteins such as

dynein Dyneins are a family of cytoskeletal motor proteins that move along microtubules in cells. They convert the chemical energy stored in ATP to mechanical work. Dynein transports various cellular cargos, provides forces and displacements importa ...

s or

kinesin A kinesin is a protein belonging to a class of motor proteins found in eukaryotic cells. Kinesins move along microtubule (MT) filaments and are powered by the hydrolysis of adenosine triphosphate (ATP) (thus kinesins are ATPases, a type of enzy ...

Relation to the cell cycle

Anaphase accounts for approximately 1% of the

cell cycle The cell cycle, or cell-division cycle, is the series of events that take place in a cell that cause it to divide into two daughter cells. These events include the duplication of its DNA (DNA replication) and some of its organelles, and subs ...

's duration. It begins with the regulated triggering of the metaphase-to-anaphase transition.

Metaphase Metaphase ( and ) is a stage of mitosis in the eukaryotic cell cycle in which chromosomes are at their second-most condensed and coiled stage (they are at their most condensed in anaphase). These chromosomes, carrying genetic information, align ...

ends with the destruction of B cyclin. B cyclin is marked with

ubiquitin Ubiquitin is a small (8.6 kDa) regulatory protein found in most tissues of eukaryotic organisms, i.e., it is found ''ubiquitously''. It was discovered in 1975 by Gideon Goldstein and further characterized throughout the late 1970s and 1980s. Fo ...

which flags it for destruction by

proteasomes Proteasomes are protein complexes which degrade unneeded or damaged proteins by proteolysis, a chemical reaction that breaks peptide bonds. Enzymes that help such reactions are called proteases. Proteasomes are part of a major mechanism by whi ...

, which is required for the function of metaphase cyclin-dependent kinases (M-Cdks). In essence, Activation of the

Anaphase-promoting complex Anaphase-promoting complex (also called the cyclosome or APC/C) is an E3 ubiquitin ligase that marks target cell cycle proteins for degradation by the 26S proteasome. The APC/C is a large complex of 11–13 subunit proteins, including a cull ...

(APC) causes the APC to cleave the M-phase cyclin and the inhibitory protein

which activates the separase protease to cleave the

subunits holding the

chromatids A chromatid (Greek ''khrōmat-'' 'color' + ''-id'') is one half of a duplicated chromosome. Before replication, one chromosome is composed of one DNA molecule. In replication, the DNA molecule is copied, and the two molecules are known as chro ...

together.

References

External links