''An Essay Concerning Human Understanding'' is a work by
John Locke
John Locke (; 29 August 1632 – 28 October 1704) was an English philosopher and physician, widely regarded as one of the most influential of Age of Enlightenment, Enlightenment thinkers and commonly known as the "father of liberalism ...
concerning the foundation of human knowledge and understanding. It first appeared in 1689 (although dated 1690) with the printed title ''An Essay Concerning Humane Understanding''. He describes the mind at birth as a blank slate (''
tabula rasa
''Tabula rasa'' (; "blank slate") is the theory that individuals are born without built-in mental content, and therefore all knowledge comes from experience or perception. Epistemological proponents of ''tabula rasa'' disagree with the doctri ...
'', although he did not use those actual words) filled later through
experience
Experience refers to conscious events in general, more specifically to perceptions, or to the practical knowledge and familiarity that is produced by these conscious processes. Understood as a conscious event in the widest sense, experience involv ...
. The essay was one of the principal sources of
empiricism
In philosophy, empiricism is an epistemological theory that holds that knowledge or justification comes only or primarily from sensory experience. It is one of several views within epistemology, along with rationalism and skepticism. Empir ...
in modern philosophy, and influenced many enlightenment philosophers, such as
David Hume
David Hume (; born David Home; 7 May 1711 NS (26 April 1711 OS) – 25 August 1776) Cranston, Maurice, and Thomas Edmund Jessop. 2020 999br>David Hume" ''Encyclopædia Britannica''. Retrieved 18 May 2020. was a Scottish Enlightenment philo ...
and
George Berkeley
George Berkeley (; 12 March 168514 January 1753) – known as Bishop Berkeley (Bishop of Cloyne of the Anglican Church of Ireland) – was an Anglo-Irish philosopher whose primary achievement was the advancement of a theory he called "immate ...
.
Book I of the ''Essay'' is Locke's attempt to refute the
rationalist notion of
innate ideas
Innatism is a philosophical and epistemological doctrine that the mind is born with ideas, knowledge, and beliefs. Therefore, the mind is not a ''tabula rasa'' (blank slate) at birth, which contrasts with the views of early empiricists such as J ...
. Book II sets out Locke's theory of ideas, including his distinction between passively acquired ''simple ideas''—such as "red," "sweet," "round"—and actively built ''complex ideas'', such as numbers, causes and effects, abstract ideas, ideas of substances, identity, and diversity. Locke also distinguishes between the truly existing ''primary qualities'' of bodies, like shape, motion and the arrangement of minute particles, and the ''secondary qualities'' that are "powers to produce various sensations in us" such as "red" and "sweet." These ''secondary qualities'', Locke claims, are dependent on the ''primary qualities''. He also offers a theory of
personal identity
Personal identity is the unique numerical identity of a person over time. Discussions regarding personal identity typically aim to determine the necessary and sufficient conditions under which a person at one time and a person at another time can ...
, offering a largely psychological criterion. Book III is concerned with language, and Book IV with knowledge, including
intuition
Intuition is the ability to acquire knowledge without recourse to conscious reasoning. Different fields use the word "intuition" in very different ways, including but not limited to: direct access to unconscious knowledge; unconscious cognition; ...
, mathematics,
moral philosophy
Ethics or moral philosophy is a branch of philosophy that "involves systematizing, defending, and recommending concepts of right and wrong behavior".''Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy'' The field of ethics, along with aesthetics, concerns ma ...
,
natural philosophy
Natural philosophy or philosophy of nature (from Latin ''philosophia naturalis'') is the philosophical study of physics
Physics is the natural science that studies matter, its fundamental constituents, its motion and behavior throu ...
("science"),
faith
Faith, derived from Latin ''fides'' and Old French ''feid'', is confidence or trust in a person, thing, or In the context of religion, one can define faith as "belief in God or in the doctrines or teachings of religion".
Religious people often ...
, and
opinion
An opinion is a judgment, viewpoint, or statement that is not conclusive, rather than facts, which are true statements.
Definition
A given opinion may deal with subjective matters in which there is no conclusive finding, or it may deal with f ...
.
Content
Book I
The main thesis is that there are "No Innate Principles." Locke wrote, "If we will attentively consider new-born children, we shall have little reason to think, that they bring many ideas into the world with them." Rather, "by degrees, afterwards, ideas come into their minds; and...they get no more, nor no other, than what experience, and the observation of things, that come in their way, furnish them with." Book I of the ''Essay'' is an attack on
''nativism'' or the doctrine of
''innate ideas''; Locke indeed sought to rebut a prevalent view of innate ideas that was firmly held by philosophers of his time. While he allowed that some ideas are in the mind from an early age, he argued that those ideas are furnished by the senses starting in the womb—for instance, differences between colours or tastes. If we have a universal understanding of a concept like
sweetness
Sweetness is a Taste#Basic tastes, basic taste most commonly Perception, perceived when eating foods rich in sugars. Sweet tastes are generally regarded as pleasure, pleasurable. In addition to sugars like sucrose, many other chemical compounds ...
, it is not because this is an innate idea, but because we are all exposed to sweet tastes at an early age.
One of Locke's fundamental arguments against innate ideas is the very fact that there is no truth to which all people attest. He took the time to argue against a number of propositions that
rationalists
In philosophy, rationalism is the epistemological view that "regards reason as the chief source and test of knowledge" or "any view appealing to reason as a source of knowledge or justification".Lacey, A.R. (1996), ''A Dictionary of Philosophy ...
offer as universally accepted truth, for instance the principle of
identity
Identity may refer to:
* Identity document
* Identity (philosophy)
* Identity (social science)
* Identity (mathematics)
Arts and entertainment Film and television
* ''Identity'' (1987 film), an Iranian film
* ''Identity'' (2003 film), ...
, pointing out that at the very least children and idiots are often unaware of these propositions. In anticipating a
counterargument
In reasoning and argument mapping, a counterargument is an objection (argument), objection to an objection. A counterargument can be used to Rebuttal, rebut an objection to a premise, a main contention or a lemma (logic), lemma. Synonyms of counte ...
, namely the use of reason to comprehend already existent innate ideas, Locke states that "by this means, there will be no difference between the maxims of the mathematicians, and theorems they deduce from them; all must be equally allowed innate; they being all discoveries made by the use of reason."
Book II
Whereas Book I is intended to reject the doctrine of innate ideas proposed by
Descartes and the
rationalists
In philosophy, rationalism is the epistemological view that "regards reason as the chief source and test of knowledge" or "any view appealing to reason as a source of knowledge or justification".Lacey, A.R. (1996), ''A Dictionary of Philosophy ...
, Book II explains that every idea is derived from experience either by
''sensation''—i.e. direct sensory information—or
''reflection''—i.e. "the perception of the operations of our own mind within us, as it is employed about the ideas it has got."
In Book II, Locke focuses on the ideas of ''substances'' and ''qualities'', in which the former are "an unknown support of qualities" and latter have the "power to produce ideas in our mind." ''Substance'' is what holds qualities together, while ''qualities'' themselves allow us to perceive and identify objects. A substance consists of ''
bare particulars'' and does not have properties in themselves except the ability to support qualities. Substances are "nothing but the assumption of an unknown support for a group of qualities that produce simple ideas in us." Despite his explanation, the existence of substances is still questionable as they cannot necessarily be "perceived" by themselves and can only be sensed through the qualities.
In terms of ''qualities'', Locke divides such into
''primary'' and ''secondary'', whereby the former give our minds ideas based on sensation and actual experience. In contrast, secondary qualities allow our minds to understand something based on reflection, in which we associate what we perceive with other ideas of our own.
Furthermore, Book II is also a systematic argument for the existence of an intelligent being:
Thus, from the consideration of ourselves, and what we infallibly find in our own constitutions, our reason leads us to the knowledge of this certain and evident truth, that there is an eternal, most powerful, and most knowing being; which whether any one will please to call God, it matters not!
Locke contends that ''
consciousness
Consciousness, at its simplest, is sentience and awareness of internal and external existence. However, the lack of definitions has led to millennia of analyses, explanations and debates by philosophers, theologians, linguisticians, and scien ...
'' is what distinguishes selves, and thus,
[Gordon-Roth, 2019]
Book III
Book III focuses on
words
A word is a basic element of language that carries an objective or practical meaning, can be used on its own, and is uninterruptible. Despite the fact that language speakers often have an intuitive grasp of what a word is, there is no consen ...
. Locke connects words to the ideas they signify, claiming that man is unique in being able to frame sounds into distinct words and to signify ideas by those words, and then that these words are built into language.
Chapter ten in this book focuses on "Abuse of Words." Here, Locke criticizes
metaphysicians
Metaphysics is the branch of philosophy that studies the fundamental nature of reality, the first principles of being, identity and change, space and time, causality, necessity, and possibility. It includes questions about the nature of conscio ...
for making up new words that have no clear meaning. He also criticizes the use of words which are not linked to clear ideas, and to those who change the criteria or meaning underlying a term.
Thus, Locke uses a discussion of language to demonstrate sloppy thinking, following the
''Port-Royal Logique'' (1662) in numbering among the abuses of language those that he calls "affected obscurity" in chapter 10. Locke complains that such obscurity is caused by, for example, philosophers who, to confuse their readers, invoke old terms and give them unexpected meanings or who construct new terms without clearly defining their intent. Writers may also invent such
obfuscation
Obfuscation is the obscuring of the intended meaning of communication by making the message difficult to understand, usually with confusing and ambiguous language. The obfuscation might be either unintentional or intentional (although intent u ...
to make themselves appear more educated or their ideas more complicated and nuanced or erudite than they actually are.
Book IV
This book focuses on knowledge in general—that it can be thought of as the sum of ideas and
perceptions
Perception () is the organization, identification, and interpretation of sensory information in order to represent and understand the presented information or environment. All perception involves signals that go through the nervous system ...
. Locke discusses the limit of human
knowledge
Knowledge can be defined as awareness of facts or as practical skills, and may also refer to familiarity with objects or situations. Knowledge of facts, also called propositional knowledge, is often defined as true belief that is distinc ...
, and whether such can be said to be accurate or truthful.
Thus, there is a distinction between what an individual might claim to ''know'', as part of a system of knowledge, and whether or not that claimed knowledge is actual. Locke writes at the beginning of the fourth chapter ("Of the Reality of Knowledge"):
I doubt not but my Reader by this Time may be apt to think that I have been all this while only building a Castle in the Air; and be ready to say to me, To what purpose all this stir? Knowledge, say you, is only the Perception of the Agreement or Disagreement of our own Ideas: but who knows what those Ideas may be?… But of what use is all this fine Knowledge of Men's own Imaginations, to a Man that enquires after the reality of things? It matters not what Men's Fancies are, 'tis the Knowledge of Things that is only to be priz'd; 'tis this alone gives a Value to our Reasonings, and Preference to one Man's Knowledge over another's, that it is of Things as they really are, and not of Dreams and Fancies.
In the last chapter of the book, Locke introduces the major classification of sciences into
natural philosophy
Natural philosophy or philosophy of nature (from Latin ''philosophia naturalis'') is the philosophical study of physics
Physics is the natural science that studies matter, its fundamental constituents, its motion and behavior throu ...
,
semiotics
Semiotics (also called semiotic studies) is the systematic study of sign processes ( semiosis) and meaning making. Semiosis is any activity, conduct, or process that involves signs, where a sign is defined as anything that communicates something ...
, and
ethics
Ethics or moral philosophy is a branch of philosophy that "involves systematizing, defending, and recommending concepts of right and wrong behavior".''Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy'' The field of ethics, along with aesthetics, concerns m ...
.
Reaction, response, and influence
Many of Locke's views were sharply criticized by rationalists and empiricists alike. In 1704,
rationalist Gottfried Leibniz
Gottfried Wilhelm (von) Leibniz . ( – 14 November 1716) was a German polymath active as a mathematician, philosopher, scientist and diplomat. He is one of the most prominent figures in both the history of philosophy and the history of mathem ...
wrote a response to Locke's work in the form of a chapter-by-chapter
rebuttal
In law, rebuttal is a form of evidence that is presented to contradict or nullify other evidence that has been presented by an adverse party. By analogy the same term is used in politics and public affairs to refer to the informal process by w ...
, titled the ''
Nouveaux essais sur l'entendement humain
''New Essays on Human Understanding'' (french: Nouveaux essais sur l'entendement humain) is a chapter-by-chapter rebuttal by Gottfried Leibniz of John Locke's major work ''An Essay Concerning Human Understanding''. It is one of only two full-lengt ...
'' (''New Essays on Human Understanding''). Leibniz was critical of a number of Locke's views in the ''Essay'', including his rejection of
innate ideas
Innatism is a philosophical and epistemological doctrine that the mind is born with ideas, knowledge, and beliefs. Therefore, the mind is not a ''tabula rasa'' (blank slate) at birth, which contrasts with the views of early empiricists such as J ...
; his
skepticism
Skepticism, also spelled scepticism, is a questioning attitude or doubt toward knowledge claims that are seen as mere belief or dogma. For example, if a person is skeptical about claims made by their government about an ongoing war then the pe ...
about species classification; and the possibility that matter might think, among other things. Leibniz thought that Locke's commitment to ideas of reflection in the ''Essay'' ultimately made him incapable of escaping the
nativist position or being consistent in his
empiricist
In philosophy, empiricism is an epistemological theory that holds that knowledge or justification comes only or primarily from sensory experience. It is one of several views within epistemology, along with rationalism and skepticism. Empir ...
doctrines of the mind's passivity.
Empiricist
George Berkeley
George Berkeley (; 12 March 168514 January 1753) – known as Bishop Berkeley (Bishop of Cloyne of the Anglican Church of Ireland) – was an Anglo-Irish philosopher whose primary achievement was the advancement of a theory he called "immate ...
was equally critical of Locke's views in the ''Essay''. Berkeley's most notable criticisms of Locke were first published in ''
A Treatise Concerning the Principles of Human Knowledge
''A Treatise Concerning the Principles of Human Knowledge'' (commonly called ''Treatise'') is a 1710 work, in English, by Irish Empiricist philosopher George Berkeley. This book largely seeks to refute the claims made by Berkeley's contemporary ...
'', in which Berkeley holds that Locke's conception of abstract ideas are incoherent and lead to severe
contradictions
In traditional logic, a contradiction occurs when a proposition conflicts either with itself or established fact. It is often used as a tool to detect disingenuous beliefs and bias. Illustrating a general tendency in applied logic, Aristotle's ...
. He also argues that Locke's conception of material substance was unintelligible, a view which he also later advanced in the ''
Three Dialogues Between Hylas and Philonous''.
At the same time, Locke's work provided crucial groundwork for future empiricists such as
David Hume
David Hume (; born David Home; 7 May 1711 NS (26 April 1711 OS) – 25 August 1776) Cranston, Maurice, and Thomas Edmund Jessop. 2020 999br>David Hume" ''Encyclopædia Britannica''. Retrieved 18 May 2020. was a Scottish Enlightenment philo ...
.
John Wynne published ''An Abridgment of Mr. Locke's Essay concerning the Human Understanding'', with Locke's approval, in 1696. Likewise,
Louisa Capper
Louisa Capper (1776–1840) was an English writer, philosopher and poet of the 19th century. She was the mother of two notable sons.
Early life and writings
Louisa Capper was born on 15 November 1776 at Fort St George, Madras, India. She was the ...
wrote ''An Abridgment of Locke's Essay concerning the Human Understanding'', published in 1811.
Some European philosophers saw the book's impact on
psychology
Psychology is the scientific study of mind and behavior. Psychology includes the study of conscious and unconscious phenomena, including feelings and thoughts. It is an academic discipline of immense scope, crossing the boundaries betwe ...
as comparable to
Isaac Newton
Sir Isaac Newton (25 December 1642 – 20 March 1726/27) was an English mathematician, physicist, astronomer, alchemist, theologian, and author (described in his time as a "natural philosopher"), widely recognised as one of the grea ...
's impact upon science.
Voltaire
François-Marie Arouet (; 21 November 169430 May 1778) was a French Age of Enlightenment, Enlightenment writer, historian, and philosopher. Known by his ''Pen name, nom de plume'' M. de Voltaire (; also ; ), he was famous for his wit, and his ...
wrote:
Just as a skilled anatomist explains the workings of the human body, so does Locke's ''Essay on the Human Understanding'' give the natural history of consciousness.… So many philosophers having written the romance of the soul, a sage has arrived who has modestly written its history.
Editions
* Locke, John. 1690. ''An Essay Concerning Humane Understanding'' (1st ed.). 1 vols. London: Thomas Basset.
* — 1894. ''An Essay Concerning Human Understanding'', edited by
Alexander Campbell Fraser
Alexander Campbell Fraser (3 September 1819 – 2 December 1914) was a Scottish theologian and philosopher.
Life
He was born in the manse at Ardchattan, Argyll, the son of the parish minister, Rev Hugh Fraser, and his wife, Maria Helen Camp ...
. 2 vols. Oxford:
Clarendon Press
Oxford University Press (OUP) is the university press of the University of Oxford. It is the largest university press in the world, and its printing history dates back to the 1480s. Having been officially granted the legal right to print books ...
.
* — 1722. ''Works, Vol 1''. London: Taylor.
See also
* ''
Second Treatise on Civil Government
''Two Treatises of Government'' (or ''Two Treatises of Government: In the Former, The False Principles, and Foundation of Sir Robert Filmer, and His Followers, Are Detected and Overthrown. The Latter Is an Essay Concerning The True Original, ...
''
*
Turtles all the way down
References
Bibliography
* Clapp, James Gordon. 1967.
John Locke" ''
Encyclopedia of Philosophy
'' The Encyclopedia of Philosophy'' is one of the major English encyclopedias of philosophy.
The first edition of the encyclopedia was edited by philosopher Paul Edwards (1923–2004), and it was published in two separate printings by Macmillan ...
''. New York:
Macmillan
MacMillan, Macmillan, McMillen or McMillan may refer to:
People
* McMillan (surname)
* Clan MacMillan, a Highland Scottish clan
* Harold Macmillan, British statesman and politician
* James MacMillan, Scottish composer
* William Duncan MacMillan ...
.
* Uzgalis, William.
001 001, O01, or OO1 may refer to:
*1 (number), a number, a numeral
*001, fictional British agent, see 00 Agent
*001, former emergency telephone number for the Norwegian fire brigade (until 1986)
*AM-RB 001, the code-name for the Aston Martin Valkyrie ...
2018.
John Locke (revised ed.). ''
Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy
The ''Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy'' (''SEP'') combines an online encyclopedia of philosophy with peer-reviewed publication of original papers in philosophy, freely accessible to Internet users. It is maintained by Stanford University. Eac ...
''. Retrieved on 16 June 2020.
* Ayers, Michael. 1991. ''Locke: Epistemology and Ontology''. 2 vols. London:
Routledge
Routledge () is a British multinational publisher. It was founded in 1836 by George Routledge, and specialises in providing academic books, journals and online resources in the fields of the humanities, behavioural science, education, law, and ...
.
*
Bennett, Jonathan. 1971. ''Locke, Berkeley, Hume: Central Themes''. Oxford:
Oxford University Press
Oxford University Press (OUP) is the university press of the University of Oxford. It is the largest university press in the world, and its printing history dates back to the 1480s. Having been officially granted the legal right to print books ...
.
*
Bizzell, Patricia, and Bruce Herzberg, eds. 2001. ''The Rhetorical Tradition'' (2nd ed.). Boston:
Bedford/St. Martin's.
*
Chappell, Vere, ed. 1994. ''The Cambridge Companion to Locke''. Cambridge:
Cambridge University Press
Cambridge University Press is the university press of the University of Cambridge. Granted letters patent by Henry VIII of England, King Henry VIII in 1534, it is the oldest university press
A university press is an academic publishing hou ...
.
* Fox, Christopher. 1988. ''Locke and the Scriblerians''. Berkeley:
University of California Press
The University of California Press, otherwise known as UC Press, is a publishing house associated with the University of California that engages in academic publishing. It was founded in 1893 to publish scholarly and scientific works by faculty ...
.
*
* Jolley, Nicholas. 1999. ''Locke: His Philosophical Thought''. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
*
Lowe, E. J. 1995. ''Locke on Human Understanding''. London: Routledge.
*
Yolton, John. ''John Locke and the Way of Ideas''. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1956.
* — 1970. ''John Locke and the Compass of Human Understanding''. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
External links
John Locke at Project Gutenberg including the ''Essay''.
Site containing a version of this work, slightly modified for easier readingEpistemeLinks*
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