An active suspension is a type of automotive suspension on a vehicle. It uses an onboard system to control the vertical movement of the vehicle's wheels relative to the

chassis A chassis (, ; plural ''chassis'' from French châssis ) is the load-bearing framework of an artificial object, which structurally supports the object in its construction and function. An example of a chassis is a vehicle frame, the underpart ...

or vehicle body rather than the passive suspension provided by large springs where the movement is determined entirely by the road surface. Active suspensions are divided into two classes: real active suspensions, and adaptive or semi-active suspensions. While semi-adaptive suspensions only vary

shock absorber A shock absorber or damper is a mechanical or hydraulic device designed to absorb and damp shock impulses. It does this by converting the kinetic energy of the shock into another form of energy (typically heat) which is then dissipated. Most sh ...

firmness to match changing road or dynamic conditions, active suspensions use some type of

actuator An actuator is a component of a machine that is responsible for moving and controlling a mechanism or system, for example by opening a valve. In simple terms, it is a "mover". An actuator requires a control device (controlled by control signal) a ...

to raise and lower the chassis independently at each wheel. These technologies allow car manufacturers to achieve a greater degree of ride quality and car handling by keeping the tires perpendicular to the road in corners, allowing better traction and control. An onboard computer detects body movement from sensors throughout the vehicle and, using that data, controls the action of the active and semi-active suspensions. The system virtually eliminates body roll and pitch variation in many driving situations including cornering, accelerating, and braking.

Principle

Skyhook theory is that the ideal suspension would let the vehicle maintain a stable posture as if suspended by an imaginary hook in the sky, unaffected by road conditions. Since an actual skyhook is obviously impractical, real active suspension systems are based on actuator operations. The imaginary line (of zero vertical acceleration) is calculated based on the value provided by an acceleration sensor installed on the body of the vehicle (see Figure 3). The dynamic elements comprise only the linear spring and the linear damper; therefore, no complicated calculations are necessary. A vehicle contacts the ground through the spring and damper in a normal spring damper suspension, as in Figure 1. To achieve the same level of stability as the Skyhook theory, the vehicle must contact the ground through the spring, and the imaginary line with the damper, as in Figure 2. Theoretically, in a case where the

damping coefficient Damping is an influence within or upon an oscillatory system that has the effect of reducing or preventing its oscillation. In physical systems, damping is produced by processes that dissipate the energy stored in the oscillation. Examples inc ...

reaches an infinite value, the vehicle will be in a state where it is completely fixed to the imaginary line, thus the vehicle will not shake.

Active

Active suspensions, the first to be introduced, use separate

s which can exert an independent force on the suspension to improve the riding characteristics. The drawbacks of this design are high cost, added complication and mass of the apparatus, and the need for frequent maintenance on some implementations. Maintenance can require specialised tools, and some problems can be difficult to diagnose.

Hydraulic actuation

Hydraulically actuated suspensions are controlled with the use of hydraulics. The first example appeared in 1954, with the hydropneumatic suspension developed by Paul Magès at Citroën. The hydraulic pressure is supplied by a high pressure Radial piston pump, radial piston hydraulic pump. Sensors continually monitor body movement and vehicle ride level, constantly supplying the hydraulic height correctors with new data. In a matter of a few milliseconds, the suspension generates counter forces to raise or lower the body. During driving maneuvers, the encased nitrogen compresses instantly, offering six times the compressibility of the steel Spring (device), springs used by vehicles up to this time. In practice, the system has always incorporated the desirable self-levelling suspension and height adjustable suspension features, with the latter now tied to vehicle speed for improved aerodynamic performance, as the vehicle lowers itself at high speed. This system performed remarkably well in straight ahead driving, including over uneven surfaces, but had little control over roll stiffness. Millions of production vehicles have been built with variations on this system.

Electronic actuation of hydraulic suspension

Colin Chapman developed the original concept of computer management of hydraulic suspension in the 1980s to improve cornering in racing cars. Lotus fitted and developed a prototype system to a 1985 Lotus Excel, Excel with electro-hydraulic active suspension, but never offered it for sale to the public, although many demonstration cars were built for other manufacturers. Sensors continually monitor body movement and vehicle ride level, constantly supplying the computer with new data. As the computer receives and processes data, it operates the hydraulic servos, mounted beside each wheel. Almost instantly, the servo-regulated suspension generates counter forces to body lean, dive, and squat during driving maneuvers. Williams Grand Prix Engineering prepared an active suspension, devised by designer-aerodynamicist Frank Dernie, for the team's Formula 1 cars in 1992, creating such successful cars that the Fédération Internationale de l'Automobile decided to ban the technology to decrease the gap between Williams F1 team and its competitors. Computer Active Technology Suspension (CATS) co-ordinates the best possible balance between ride quality and handling by analysing road conditions and making up to 3,000 adjustments every second to the Suspension (vehicle), suspension settings via electronically controlled Shock absorber, dampers. The 1999 Mercedes-Benz CL-Class (C215) introduced ''Active Body Control'', where high pressure hydraulic servos are controlled by electronic computing, and this feature is still available. Vehicles can be designed to actively Tilting train, lean into curves to improve occupant comfort.

Active anti-roll bar

Active anti-roll bar stiffens under command of the driver or suspension electronic control unit (ECU) during hard cornering. First production car was Mitsubishi Mirage, Mitsubishi Mirage Cyborg in 1988.

Electromagnetic recuperative

In fully active electronically controlled production cars, the application of electric servos and motors married to electronic computing allows for flat cornering and instant reactions to road conditions. The Bose Corporation has a proof of concept model. The founder of Bose, Amar Bose, had been working on exotic suspensions for many years while he was an MIT professor. Electromagnetic active suspension uses linear electromagnetic motors attached to each wheel. It provides extremely fast response, and allows regeneration of power consumed, by using the motors as generators. This nearly surmounts the issues of slow response times and high power consumption of hydraulic systems. Electronically controlled active suspension system (ECASS) technology was patented by the University of Texas Center for Electromechanics in the 1990s and has been developed by L-3 Electronic Systems for use on military vehicles. The ECASS-equipped Humvee exceeded the performance specifications for all performance evaluations in terms of absorbed power to the vehicle operator, stability and handling.

Active Wheel

*Michelin's Active Wheel from 2004 incorporates an in-wheel electrical suspension motor that controls torque distribution, traction, turning maneuvers, pitch, roll and suspension damping for that wheel, in addition to an in-wheel motor, in-wheel electric traction motor. *Audi active electromechanical suspension system introduced in 2017. It drives each wheel individually and adapts to the prevailing road conditions. Each wheel has an electric motor which is powered by the 48-volt main electrical system. Additional components include gears, a rotary tube together with internal titanium torsion bar and a lever which exerts up to 1,100 Nm (811.3 lb-ft) on the suspension via a coupling rod. Thanks to the front camera, the sedan detects bumps in the road early on and predictively adjusts the active suspension. Even before the car reaches a bump in the road, the preview function developed by Audi transmits the right amount of travel to the actuators and actively controls the suspension. The computer-controlled motors can sense imperfection on the road, and can raise the suspension up from the wheel which would go over the undulation, thus aiding the ride quality. The system will direct the motors on the outside to push up or pull down the suspension while cornering. This will result in a flatter drive and reduced body-roll around corners which in turn means more confident handling dynamics.

Adaptive and semi-active

Adaptive or semi-active systems can only change the Damping ratio, viscous damping coefficient of the

, and do not add energy to the suspension system. While adaptative suspensions have generally a slow time response and a limited number of damping coefficient values, semi-active suspensions have time response close to a few milliseconds and can provide a wide range of damping values. Therefore, adaptative suspensions usually only propose different riding modes (comfort, normal, sport...) corresponding to different damping coefficients, while semi-active suspensions modify the damping in real time, depending on the road conditions and the dynamics of the car. Though limited in their intervention (for example, the control force can never have different direction than the current vector of velocity of the suspension), semi-active suspensions are less expensive to design and consume far less energy. In recent times, research in semi-active suspensions has continued to advance with respect to their capabilities, narrowing the gap between semi-active and fully active suspension systems.

Solenoid/valve actuated

This type is the most economic and basic type of semi-active suspensions. They consist of a solenoid valve which alters the flow of the hydraulic medium inside the

, therefore changing the damping characteristics of the suspension setup. The solenoids are wired to the controlling computer, which sends them commands depending on the control algorithm (usually the so-called "Sky-Hook" technique). This type of system is used in Cadillac, Cadillac's Computer Command Ride (CCR) suspension system. The first production car was the Toyota Soarer with semi-active Toyota Electronic Modulated Suspension, from 1983.

Magnetorheological damper

Another fairly recent method incorporates magnetorheological dampers with a brand name MagneRide. It was initially developed by Delphi Corporation for General Motors, GM and was standard, as many other new technologies, for Cadillac STS (from model 2002), and on some other GM models from 2003. This was an upgrade for semi-active systems ("automatic road-sensing suspensions") used in upscale GM vehicles for decades. It allows, together with faster modern computers, changing the stiffness of all wheel suspensions independently. These dampers are finding increased usage in the US and already leases to some foreign brands, mostly in more expensive vehicles. This system was in development for 25 years. The damper fluid contains metallic particles. Through the onboard computer, the dampers' compliance characteristics are controlled by an electromagnet. Essentially, increasing the current flow into the damper magnetic circuit increases the circuit magnetic flux. This in turn causes the metal particles to change their alignment, which increases fluid viscosity thereby raising the compression/rebound rates, while a decrease softens the effect of the dampers by aligning the particles in the opposite direction. If we imagine the metal particles as dinner plates then whilst aligned so they are on edge - viscosity is minimised. At the other end of the spectrum they will be aligned at 90 degrees so flat. Thus making the fluid much more viscous. It is the electric field produced by the electromagnet that changes the alignment of the metal particles. Information from wheel sensors (about suspension extension), steering, acceleration sensors - and other data, is used to calculate the optimal stiffness at that point in time. The fast reaction of the system (milliseconds) allows, for instance, making a softer passing by a single wheel over a bump in the road at a particular instant in time.

Production vehicles

By calendar year: * 1954: Citroën Traction Avant 15-6H:, Self-levelling suspension, self-leveling Citroën hydropneumatic suspension on rear wheels. * 1955: Citroën DS, self-leveling Citroën hydropneumatic suspension on all four wheels. * 1957: Cadillac Eldorado Brougham: premiere of self-leveling GM air suspension *1967: Rolls-Royce Silver Shadow, Rolls Royce Silver Shadow Partial load bearing hydropneumatic suspension on all four wheels. Front system deleted in 1969 * 1970: Citroën SM, Self-levelling suspension, self-leveling Citroën hydropneumatic suspension on all four wheels. * 1970: Citroën GS, Self-levelling suspension, self-leveling Citroën hydropneumatic suspension on all four wheels. * 1974: Citroën CX, Self-levelling suspension, self-leveling Citroën hydropneumatic suspension on all four wheels. *1975: Mercedes-Benz W116, Mercedes Benz 450 SEL 6.9 Hydropneumatic suspension on all four wheels. * 1982: Citroën BX, Self-levelling suspension, self-leveling Citroën hydropneumatic suspension on all four wheels. *1979: Mercedes-Benz W126, Mercedes Benz W126 Hydropneumatic suspension on all four wheels as an option on the LWB v8 models * 1983: Toyota Soarer: premiere of semi-active Toyota Electronic Modulated Suspension (TEMS) *1985 Mercedes-Benz W201, Mercedes Benz 190E 2.3-16 Partial load bearing hydropneumatic suspension on all four wheels as an option on the 16v model. Standard on the Evo 1 and Evo 2 models * 1986: Toyota Soarer: world first Electronically controlled (TEMS) full air suspension (spring constant, variable attenuation force) installed *1986: Mercedes-Benz W126, Mercedes Benz W126 Hydropneumatic suspension on all four wheels with electronically controlled adaptive damping as an option on the LWB v8 models * 1987: Mitsubishi Galant (sixth generation) - features Active Controlled Suspension (Dynamic ECS). The system enables a comfortable ride and handling stability by automatically adjusting the vehicle height and damping force. * 1989: Citroën XM - self-levelling, semi-active Hydropneumatic suspension, Hydractive on all four wheels with automatically adjusted spring rates and dampeners. *1989: Mercedes-Benz SL-Class (R129), Mercedes Benz R129 Partial load bearing hydropneumatic suspension with automatically adjusted spring rates and dampers as an option (ADS) * 1990: *First semi-active suspension scanning the road ahead (sonar) - 1990 Nissan Leopard/Nissan Cedric/Nissan Maxima/Nissan J30 DUET-SS Super Sonic Suspension * 1990: Infiniti Q45 "Full-Active Suspension (FAS)", active suspension system, although it did still have conventional coil springs * 1992: Toyota Celica (Toyota Electronically Modulated Suspension) * 1992: Citroën Xantia VSX - self-levelling, semi-active Hydropneumatic suspension, Hydractive 2 on all four wheels, with automatically adjusted spring rates and dampeners. * 1993: Cadillac, several models with RSS Road Sensing Suspension, road sensing suspension. RSS was available in both standard and CVRSS (continuously variable road sensing suspension) systems. It monitored damping rates of the

s every 15 milliseconds, selecting between two settings. *1994: Toyota Celsior introduced first Skyhook theory, Skyhook air suspension * 1994: Citroën Xantia Activa - self-levelling, fully active Hydractive on all four wheels with hydraulic anti-roll bars and automatically adjusted spring rates and dampeners. * 1998: Land Rover Discovery, Land Rover Discovery series 2 - Active Cornering Enhancement; an electronically controlled hydraulic anti-roll bar system was fitted to some versions, which reduced cornering roll. *1999: Mercedes-Benz CL-Class (C215), Mercedes Benz C215 Self leveling fully active hydraulic Active Body Control, Active body control. Available on the S, CL and SL models *2002: Cadillac Seville STS, first MagneRide * 2004: Volvo Volvo S60#S60 R, S60 R and Volvo V70#V70 R, V70 R (Four-C, a short name for "Continuously Controlled Chassis Concept", semi-active) *2013: Mercedes-Benz S-Class (W222), Mercedes Benz W222: Optional Magic Body Control, Magic body control. Self leveling fully active hydraulic system with road surface scanning electronics *2013: Volkswagen Volkswagen Golf Mk7#Golf R, Mk7 Golf R User-Selectable Electronically Controlled Shock Dampening (Dynamic Chassis Control (DCC)) * 2019: Toyota Toyota Avalon, Avalon Touring model (Adaptive Variable Suspension (AVS))

References

* * {{Chassis control systems Advanced driver assistance systems Automotive suspension technologies Mechanical power control