Amursana (
Mongolian ; ; 172321September 1757) was an 18th-century ''taishi'' () or prince of the
Khoit
The Khoid, also Khoyd or Khoit (; "Northern ones/people") people are an Oirat subgroup of the Choros clan. Once one of largest tribes of the Oirats.
References
Mongol peoples
Ethnic groups in Mongolia
Kalmykia
Kalmyk people
Oirats
Dzu ...
-
Oirat tribe that ruled over parts of
Dzungaria
Dzungaria (; from the Mongolian words , meaning 'left hand') is a geographical subregion in Northwest China that corresponds to the northern half of Xinjiang. It is thus also known as Beijiang, which means "Northern Xinjiang". Bounded by the ...
and
Altishahr
Altishahr (, , ; romanized: ''Altä-şähär'' or ''Alti-şähär''), also known as Kashgaria, is a historical name for the Tarim Basin region used in the 18th and 19th centuries. The term means 'Six Cities' in Turkic languages, referring to oasis ...
in present-day northwest China. Known as the last great Oirat hero, Amursana was the last of the Dzungar rulers. The defeat of his rebel forces by
Qing dynasty Chinese armies in the late 1750s signaled the final extinction of Mongol influence and power in
Inner Asia
Inner Asia refers to the northern and landlocked regions spanning North, Central and East Asia. It includes parts of western and northeast China, as well as southern Siberia. The area overlaps with some definitions of 'Central Asia', mostly the ...
, ensured the incorporation of Mongol territory into the
Qing Chinese Empire, and brought about the
Dzungar genocide
The Dzungar genocide () was the mass extermination of the Mongol Dzungar people by the Qing dynasty. The Qianlong Emperor ordered the genocide due to the rebellion in 1755 by Dzungar leader Amursana against Qing rule, after the dynasty first co ...
, the Qing Emperor's "final solution" to China's northwest frontier problems.
Family
Amursana was born in 1723 to a noble mother from the Dzungar-Oirat tribe and ''taisha'' or crown prince of the
Khoit
The Khoid, also Khoyd or Khoit (; "Northern ones/people") people are an Oirat subgroup of the Choros clan. Once one of largest tribes of the Oirats.
References
Mongol peoples
Ethnic groups in Mongolia
Kalmykia
Kalmyk people
Oirats
Dzu ...
-Oirat clan. Amursana's mother, Boitalak () was the daughter of
Tsewang Rabtan
Tsewang Rabtan (from ''Tsewang Rapten''; ; ; 1643–1727) was a Choros (Oirats) prince and the Khong Tayiji of the Dzungar Khanate from 1697 (following the death of his uncle and rival Galdan Boshugtu Khan) until his death in 1727. He was mar ...
, leader of the Dzungar-Oriat tribe following the death of
Galdan Boshugtu Khan
Erdeniin Galdan (1644–1697, mn, Галдан Бошигт хаан, , ), known as Galdan Boshugtu Khan (in Mongolian script: ) was a Choros Dzungar- Oirat Khan of the Dzungar Khanate. As fourth son of Erdeni Batur, founder of the Dzungar ...
. She first married Danjung (), the eldest son of
Lha-bzang Khan
Lha-bzang Khan (; Mongolian: ''Lazang Haan''; alternatively, Lhazang or Lapsangn or Lajang; d.1717) was the ruler of the Khoshut (also spelled Qoshot, Qośot, or Qosot) tribe of the Oirats. He was the son of Tenzin Dalai Khan (1668–1701) and g ...
, ruler of the
Khoshut
The Khoshut ( Mongolian: Хошууд,, qoşūd, ; literally "bannermen," from Middle Mongolian ''qosighu'' "flag, banner") are one of the four major tribes of the Oirat people. Originally, Khoshuuds were one of the Khorchin tribes in southeast ...
-Oirats tribe. Following Danjung's death c. 1717, allegedly at the hands of his father-in-law, Boitalak married Amursana's father, a ''taisha'' or crown prince of the
Khoit
The Khoid, also Khoyd or Khoit (; "Northern ones/people") people are an Oirat subgroup of the Choros clan. Once one of largest tribes of the Oirats.
References
Mongol peoples
Ethnic groups in Mongolia
Kalmykia
Kalmyk people
Oirats
Dzu ...
-Oirat clan.
Alliance and split with Dawachi
The
Khoits ranked lower within the
Oirat tribal hierarchy their ''taishi'' answered to the
Dorbet Oirats and by the time Amursana became khan, the power of the
Dzungars
The Dzungar people (also written as Zunghar; from the Mongolian words , meaning 'left hand') were the many Mongol Oirat tribes who formed and maintained the Dzungar Khanate in the 17th and 18th centuries. Historically they were one of major tr ...
was on the wane. The death of
Tsewang Rabtan
Tsewang Rabtan (from ''Tsewang Rapten''; ; ; 1643–1727) was a Choros (Oirats) prince and the Khong Tayiji of the Dzungar Khanate from 1697 (following the death of his uncle and rival Galdan Boshugtu Khan) until his death in 1727. He was mar ...
's son
Galdan Tseren
Galdan Tseren (; ?–1745) was a Choros (Oirats) prince and the ''Khong Tayiji'' of the Dzungar Khanate from 1727 until his death in 1745.
Galdan Tseren was the eldest son of Tsewang Rabtan. After the assassination of his father by rival faction ...
and the succession of
Tsewang Dorji Namjal
Tsewang Dorji Namjal (; Mongolian:; 1732–1750) was the mid-eighteenth century khan or ruler of the Dzungar Khanate, which covered most of present-day Xinjiang and part of eastern Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan and southern Siberia.
Background
Tsew ...
in 1745 led to a fierce internecine struggle for Dzungar leadership. Tsewang Dorji was subsequently blinded and imprisoned in
Aksu by his elder brother
Lama Dorji Lama Dorji, or Lama Darja (; mn, Лхамдаржаа; 1726 or 1728–1753) was a mid-eighteenth century khan or ruler of the Dzungar Khanate, a confederation of Mongol tribes that ruled over most of present-day Xinjiang and part of eastern Kazakh ...
(; d. 1752), who then usurped the khanship. Although a Khoit, Lama Dorji's only opposition came from the Dzungar Khan,
Dawachi
Dawachi (; mn, Даваач; died 1759) was the last khan of the Dzungar Khanate from 1753 until his defeat at the hands of Qing and Mongol forces at Ili in 1755.
Dawachi belonged to the highest rank of Dzungar aristocracy. He traced his ance ...
, grandson of
Khong Tayiji
Khong Tayiji ( mn, , хун тайж; ), also spelled Qong Tayiji, was a title of the Mongols, derived from the Chinese term ''Huangtaizi'' (皇太子; "crown prince").
At first it also meant crown prince in the Mongolian language. It was origina ...
Tsewang Rabtan
Tsewang Rabtan (from ''Tsewang Rapten''; ; ; 1643–1727) was a Choros (Oirats) prince and the Khong Tayiji of the Dzungar Khanate from 1697 (following the death of his uncle and rival Galdan Boshugtu Khan) until his death in 1727. He was mar ...
's cousin
Tsering Dhondup (). In 1751, Lama Dorji defeated Dawachi who was forced to flee across the border into
Kazakh Khanate territory with about a dozen men. Amursana was one of Dawachi's few followers who returned to
Tarbagatai to join up with his Khoit clansmen. With a thousand of his men, he then marched to
Ili where they surprised Lama Dorji and killed him on 13January 1752. Other sources claim that Lama Dorji was killed by his own troops in December 1752. Dawachi then assumed the title 'of ''taisha'' of the Dzungars and richly rewarded Amursana for his efforts.
As a Khoit, Amursana did not rank as part of the Dzungar Khanate's hierarchy and relied on Dawachi for influence among the various Oirat clans. Nevertheless, marriage to the daughter of
Ablai Khan
Wāli-ūllah Abū'l-Mansūr Khan ( kk, Уәлиұллаh Әбілмансұр хан, , romanized: ''Uäliūllah Äbılmansūr Han''), better known as Abylai Khan or Ablai Khan (May 23, 1711 — May 23, 1781) was a Kazakh khan of the Middle jü ...
, leader of the neighboring
Kazakh Khanate, and alliances with various Oirat clan leaders enabled him to build up enough support to call on Dawachi to divide the Khanate's lands between them. Dawachi refused and instead attacked his former ally, forcing him to flee east to
Khovd. There, Amursana swore allegiance to the
Qing Qianlong Emperor, bringing with him 5,000 soldiers and 20,000 women and children. He then traveled to Beijing to seek the emperor's assistance in defeating Dawachi and retaking Ili and neighboring
Kashgar. Amursana's persuaded the ambitious and glory-seeking Qianlong to back his plan, in addition to granting him a princedom of the first degree (), which entitled Amursana to double stipends and privileges, as a bonus.
Meanwhile, most of the Oirat
Khoshut
The Khoshut ( Mongolian: Хошууд,, qoşūd, ; literally "bannermen," from Middle Mongolian ''qosighu'' "flag, banner") are one of the four major tribes of the Oirat people. Originally, Khoshuuds were one of the Khorchin tribes in southeast ...
had also defected to the Qing leaving Dawachireportedly a "drunken and incompetent" rulerwith only the Dzungars under his control.
Capture of Ili
Late in 1754, in an attempt to definitively settle the 60-year-old Dzungaria problem, Qianlong gave orders for a final advance on
Ili. Amursana was made of the Northern Route Army. General took command of the army, which set out from
Uliastai
Uliastai ( mn, Улиастай; ), also spelled Uliyasutai or Oulia-Sontai, and sometimes known as Javkhlant, is a city in Mongolia located in the western part of the country and from the capital Ulaanbaatar. Uliastai is the capital of Zavkhan P ...
in March 1755 and linked up with the Western Route Army under and Salar () three months later. The combined forces reached
Bortala, in June 1755.
Qing forces captured Ili without a fight and Dawachi withdrew south-west to the
Gedeng Mountains where he made a last stand with his 10,000 men. Dawachi's army was routed and he was captured and dispatched to Beijing. Amursana had hoped to usurp Dawachi's position as head of the Dzungars but Qianlong had already pre-empted such a move. Before the expedition to Ili had set out and fearing the rise of a new Mongolian empire, Qianlong had proclaimed that the four Oirat clans of Dzungaria would be resettled in their own territory each with their own Khan appointed directly by Beijing. Amursana spurned the offer of Khan over the Khoits and demanded to be khan of all Oirats. Amursana was instructed to return to Beijing but sensing danger, he escaped from his escort en route to the Qing imperial resort of
Chengde
Chengde, formerly known as Jehol and Rehe, is a prefecture-level city in Hebei province, situated about 225 km northeast of Beijing. It is best known as the site of the Mountain Resort, a vast imperial garden and palace formerly used by ...
on 24September 1755.
Revolt against the Qing
Amursana rallied the majority of the remaining Oirats and launched his rebellion against the Qing. The Chinese armies had by now withdrawn leaving behind only a skeleton force under Ban Di. Helpless and unable to do anything, Ban Di committed suicide on 4October 1755. For the following eight months, Amursana was the sole leader of the Oirats and the de facto Dzungar Khan.
Meanwhile, as he had promised, Qianlong appointed Khans for each of the four Oirat clans in a move designed to prevent them joining the rebellion. Qing troops were once more dispatched in late March, 1756 retook Ili. Amursana escaped and fled to the Kazakh Khanate where his father-in-law, Ablai Khan, refused to hand him over, despite the threat of a Qing invasion of his territory.
Qianlong railed at his generals for their failure to capture the fugitive, saying they were a waste of time and money. He dismissed them and ordered the withdrawal of all troops then appointed commander of a small expeditionary force that was sent to garrison Ili.
Amursana returned to Ili to rally the insurgents and almost annihilated Zhao Hui's forces. The hopelessly outnumbered Chinese general, despite putting up a spirited defence, was forced to retreat with 500 soldiers. The rebels cut the post routes to the capital but Zhao Hui managed to fight his way back to
Barkul
Barkol Kazakh Autonomous County (sometimes Barkul or Balikul in English) is part of Hami Prefecture in Xinjiang and has an area of . It forms part of the China–Mongolia border (bordering the Mongolian provinces of Khovd and Govi-Altai) on the co ...
, where he pleaded with Qianlong to take more drastic measures against the rebels.
Meanwhile, Qing attention became temporarily focused on the
Khalka
The Khalkha ( Mongolian: mn, Халх, Halh, , zh, 喀爾喀) have been the largest subgroup of Mongol people in modern Mongolia since the 15th century. The Khalkha, together with Chahars, Ordos and Tumed, were directly ruled by Borjigin khan ...
prince
Chingünjav Chingunjavi ( mn, Чингүн, ; also known as ''Admiral Chingün'', mn, Чингүн, 1710–1757) was the Khalkha prince ruler of the Khotogoids and one of the two major leaders of the 1756-57 rebellion in Outer Mongolia. Although his rebellio ...
, a descendant of
Genghis Khan, who between the summer of 1756 and January 1757 mounted the most serious Khalka Mongol rebellion against the Qing until its demise in 1911. Before dealing with Amursana, the majority of Qianlong's forces were reassigned to ensure stability in Khalka until Chingünjav's army was crushed by the Qing in a ferocious battle near
Lake Khövsgöl
Lake Khövsgöl is the largest freshwater lake in Mongolia by volume and second largest by area. It is located near the northern border of Mongolia, about 200 km (124 mi) west of the southern end of Lake Baikal. It is nicknamed the "Younger sist ...
in January, 1757.
After the victory, Qianlong dispatched additional forces to Ili where they quickly routed the rebels. Amursana escaped for a third time to the Kazakh Khanate, but not long afterwards Ablai Khan pledged tributary status to the Chinese, which meant Amursana was no longer safe.
Death and aftermath
Amursana fled west to Siberia and sought asylum from the Russians at their fortress in Semipalatinsk (modern
Semey
Semey ( kk, Семей, Semei, سەمەي; cyrl, Семей ), until 2007 known as Semipalatinsk (russian: Семипала́тинск) and in 1917–1920 as Alash-kala ( kk, Алаш-қала, ''Alaş-qala''), is a city in eastern Kazakhst ...
,
Kazakhstan
Kazakhstan, officially the Republic of Kazakhstan, is a transcontinental country located mainly in Central Asia and partly in Eastern Europe. It borders Russia to the north and west, China to the east, Kyrgyzstan to the southeast, Uzbeki ...
). He was then taken to
Tobolsk
Tobolsk (russian: Тобо́льск) is a town in Tyumen Oblast, Russia, located at the confluence of the Tobol and Irtysh rivers. Founded in 1590, Tobolsk is the second-oldest Russian settlement east of the Ural Mountains in Asian Russia, an ...
where he died of smallpox on 21September 1757, aged 35.
The Chinese demanded the return of the fugitive and his followers under the terms of Article X to the
Treaty of Kiakhta, but the Russians hid the facts behind his flight and death hoping to gain leverage through the possession of his body. After Qing envoys were told that Amursana had died crossing the
Irtysh River, they spent the next month dredging it but found nothing. After a long period of wrangling, the Russians finally agreed to ship Amursana's frozen body from Tobolsk to
Kiakhta
Kyakhta (russian: Кя́хта, ; bua, Хяагта, Khiaagta, ; mn, Хиагт, Hiagt, ) is a town and the administrative center of Kyakhtinsky District in the Republic of Buryatia, Russia, located on the Kyakhta River near the Mongolia–Russi ...
for viewing but refused a request that it be handed over for "posthumous punishment"; they instead buried it. Repeated Qing requests to
St. Petersburg
Saint Petersburg ( rus, links=no, Санкт-Петербург, a=Ru-Sankt Peterburg Leningrad Petrograd Piter.ogg, r=Sankt-Peterburg, p=ˈsankt pʲɪtʲɪrˈburk), formerly known as Petrograd (1914–1924) and later Leningrad (1924–1991), i ...
for the return of Amursana's corpse were rebutted by the Russians on the grounds that their amicable relations should not be upset by "a few rotten bones". Qianlong piled on the pressure: he placed Russian Orthodox monks in
Beijing
}
Beijing ( ; ; ), alternatively romanized as Peking ( ), is the capital of the People's Republic of China. It is the center of power and development of the country. Beijing is the world's most populous national capital city, with over 21 ...
under house arrest and threatened to cut off trade altogether. In the end, Amursana's body was not returned. Qianlong's insistence that "The state only needs to capture Amursana. When he has died, and his body is retrieved, the entire
ungar affair can be called a success", failed to convince the Russians to return the body.
Qianlong's obsession with the matter appears to have been influenced by his grandfather
Kangxi
The Kangxi Emperor (4 May 1654– 20 December 1722), also known by his temple name Emperor Shengzu of Qing, born Xuanye, was the third emperor of the Qing dynasty, and the second Qing emperor to rule over China proper, reigning from 1661 to 1 ...
's treatment of the body of his arch-enemy
Galdan Boshugtu Khan
Erdeniin Galdan (1644–1697, mn, Галдан Бошигт хаан, , ), known as Galdan Boshugtu Khan (in Mongolian script: ) was a Choros Dzungar- Oirat Khan of the Dzungar Khanate. As fourth son of Erdeni Batur, founder of the Dzungar ...
, whose head was placed on public display and his ashes crushed on the military parade ground in the Chinese capital.
On 18October 1768, both parties signed an amendment to Article X of the Treaty of Kiakhta in the Russian, Manchu and Mongol languages prescribing punishments that would apply to future criminals, including defectors. However, as the border with Dzungaria had not been defined at the time of the original 1727 treaty, Amursana and his compatriots did not qualify.
Legacy
Amursana's revolt and the subsequent subjugation of the Oirats led to the
Revolt of the Altishahr Khojas
The Revolt of the Altishahr Khojas () was an uprising against the Qing dynasty of China, which broke out in 1757 during the reign of the Qianlong Emperor. The rebels were led by (also known as Hojijan, Huojizhan; nickname: "Younger Khoja" 小 ...
(1757-1759) south of the
Tian Shan
The Tian Shan,, , otk, 𐰴𐰣 𐱅𐰭𐰼𐰃, , tr, Tanrı Dağı, mn, Тэнгэр уул, , ug, تەڭرىتاغ, , , kk, Тәңіртауы / Алатау, , , ky, Теңир-Тоо / Ала-Тоо, , , uz, Tyan-Shan / Tangritog‘ ...
range and the final Qing conquest of the
Tarim Basin
The Tarim Basin is an endorheic basin in Northwest China occupying an area of about and one of the largest basins in Northwest China.Chen, Yaning, et al. "Regional climate change and its effects on river runoff in the Tarim Basin, China." Hydr ...
. The abortive rebellion also dealt the
death blow to Dzungaria and the Dzungar people.
Ja Lama
Ja Lama ( mn, Жа Лама, also known as Dambiijantsan, mn, Дамбийжанцан or ''Dambiijaa'', mn, Дамбийжаа; 1862–1922) was an adventurer and warlord of unknown birth and background who fought successive campaigns against ...
(1862–1922), who fought successive campaigns against Chinese rule in western Mongolia between 1890 and 1922, at first claimed to be the grandson and later the reincarnation of Amursana.
He was also the inspiration behind the
Ak Jang new religious movement
A new religious movement (NRM), also known as alternative spirituality or a new religion, is a religious or spiritual group that has modern origins and is peripheral to its society's dominant religious culture. NRMs can be novel in origin or th ...
.
See also
*
Dzungaria
Dzungaria (; from the Mongolian words , meaning 'left hand') is a geographical subregion in Northwest China that corresponds to the northern half of Xinjiang. It is thus also known as Beijiang, which means "Northern Xinjiang". Bounded by the ...
*
Dzungar people
The Dzungar people (also written as Zunghar; from the Mongolian words , meaning 'left hand') were the many Mongol Oirat tribes who formed and maintained the Dzungar Khanate in the 17th and 18th centuries. Historically they were one of major t ...
*
Revolt of the Altishahr Khojas
The Revolt of the Altishahr Khojas () was an uprising against the Qing dynasty of China, which broke out in 1757 during the reign of the Qianlong Emperor. The rebels were led by (also known as Hojijan, Huojizhan; nickname: "Younger Khoja" 小 ...
Notes
References
Sources
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{{DEFAULTSORT:Amurasana
History of Kalmykia
18th-century Mongol rulers
1723 births
1757 deaths
Dzungar Khanate
Deaths from smallpox
Qing dynasty people