American Revolutionary War

The American Revolutionary War (April 19, 1775 – September 3, 1783), also known as the Revolutionary War or American War of Independence, was the armed conflict that comprised the final eight years of the broader American Revolution, in which American Patriot forces organized as the Continental Army and commanded by George Washington defeated the British Army. The conflict was fought in North America, the Caribbean, and the Atlantic Ocean. The war's outcome seemed uncertain for most of the war. However, Washington and the Continental Army's decisive victory in the Siege of Yorktown in 1781 led King George III and the Kingdom of Great Britain to negotiate an end to the war in the Treaty of Paris two years later, in 1783, in which the British monarchy acknowledged the independence of the Thirteen Colonies, leading to the establishment of the United States as an independent and sovereign nation.

In 1763, after the British Empire gained dominance in North America following its victory over the French in the Seven Years' War, tensions and disputes began escalating between the British and the Thirteen Colonies, especially following passage of Stamp and Townshend Acts. The British Army responded by seeking to occupy Boston militarily, leading to the Boston Massacre on March 5, 1770. In mid-1774, with tensions escalating even further between the British Army and the colonies, the British Parliament imposed the Intolerable Acts, an attempt to disarm Americans, leading to the Battles of Lexington and Concord in April 1775, the first battles of the Revolutionary War. In June 1775, the Second Continental Congress voted to incorporate colonial-based Patriot militias into a central military, the Continental Army, and unanimously appointed Washington its commander-in-chief. Two months later, in August 1775, the British Parliament declared the colonies to be in a state of rebellion. In July 1776, the Second Continental Congress formalized the war, passing the Lee Resolution on July 2, and, two days later, unanimously adopting the Declaration of Independence, on July 4.

In March 1776, in an early win for the newly-formed Continental Army under Washington's command, following a successful siege of Boston, the Continental Army successfully drove the British Army out of Boston. British commander-in-chief William Howe responded by launching the New York and New Jersey campaign, which resulted in Howe's capture of New York City in November. Washington responded by clandestinely crossing the Delaware River and winning small but significant victories at Trenton and Princeton.

In the summer of 1777, as Howe was poised to capture Philadelphia, the Continental Congress fled to Baltimore. In October 1777, a separate northern British force under the command of John Burgoyne was forced to surrender at Saratoga in an American victory that proved crucial in convincing France and Spain that an independent United States was a viable possibility. France signed a commercial agreement with the rebels, followed by a Treaty of Alliance in February 1778. In 1779, the Sullivan Expedition undertook a scorched earth campaign against the Iroquois who were largely allied with the British. Indian raids on the American frontier, however, continued to be a problem. Also, in 1779, Spain allied with France against Great Britain in the Treaty of Aranjuez, though Spain did not formally ally with the Americans.

Howe's replacement Henry Clinton intended to take the war against the Americans into the Southern Colonies. Despite some initial success, British General Cornwallis was besieged by a Franco-American force in Yorktown in September and October 1781. Cornwallis was forced to surrender in October. The British wars with France and Spain continued for another two years, but fighting largely ceased in North America. In the Treaty of Paris, ratified on September 3, 1783, Great Britain acknowledged the sovereignty and independence of the United States, bringing the American Revolutionary War to an end. The Treaties of Versailles resolved Great Britain's conflicts with France and Spain and forced Great Britain to cede Tobago, Senegal, and small territories in India to France, and Menorca, West Florida, and East Florida to Spain. Wallace 2015, "American Revolution"

Prelude to war

The French and Indian War, part of the wider global conflict known as the Seven Years' War, ended with the 1763 Peace of Paris, which expelled France from their possessions in New France. Calloway 2007, p. 4 The Royal Proclamation of 1763 was designed to refocus colonial expansion north into Nova Scotia and south into Florida, with the Mississippi River as the dividing line between British and Spanish possessions in America. Settlement was tightly restricted beyond the 1763 limits, and claims west of this line, including by Virginia and Massachusetts, were rescinded. With the exception of Virginia and others deprived of rights to western lands, the colonial legislatures agreed on the boundaries but disagreed on where to set them. Many settlers resented the restrictions entirely, and enforcement required permanent garrisons along the frontier, which led to increasingly bitter disputes over who should pay for them. Calloway 2007, p. 12

Taxation and legislation

The huge debt incurred by the Seven Years' War and demands from British taxpayers for cuts in government expenditure meant Parliament expected the colonies to fund their own defense. The 1763 to 1765 Grenville ministry instructed the Royal Navy to cease trading smuggled goods and enforce customs duties levied in American ports. The most important was the 1733 Molasses Act; routinely ignored before 1763, it had a significant economic impact since 85% of New England rum exports were manufactured from imported molasses. These measures were followed by the Sugar Act and Stamp Act, which imposed additional taxes on the colonies to pay for defending the western frontier. Watson and Clark 1960, pp. 183–184 The taxes proved highly burdensome, particularly for the poorer classes, and quickly became a source of discontent. In July 1765, the Whigs formed the First Rockingham ministry, which repealed the Stamp Act and reduced tax on foreign molasses to help the New England economy, but re-asserted Parliamentary authority in the Declaratory Act. Watson and Clark 1960, pp. 116, 187

However, this did little to end the discontent; in 1768, a riot started in Boston when the authorities seized the sloop ''Liberty'' on suspicion of smuggling. Morgan 2012, p. 40 Tensions escalated in March 1770 when British troops fired on rock-throwing civilians, killing five in what became known as the Boston Massacre. Ferling 2007, p. 23 The Massacre coincided with the partial repeal of the Townshend Acts by the Tory-based North Ministry. North insisted on retaining duty on tea to enshrine Parliament's right to tax the colonies; the amount was minor, but ignored the fact it was that very principle Americans found objectionable. Morgan 2012, p. 52

In April 1772, colonialists staged the first American tax revolt against British royal authority in Weare, New Hampshire, later referred to as the Pine Tree Riot. This would inspire the design of the Pine Tree Flag. Tensions escalated following the destruction of a customs vessel in the June 1772 Gaspee Affair, then came to a head in 1773. A banking crisis led to the near-collapse of the East India Company, which dominated the British economy; to support it, Parliament passed the Tea Act, giving it a trading monopoly in the Thirteen Colonies. Since most American tea was smuggled by the Dutch, the act was opposed by those who managed the illegal trade, while being seen as another attempt to impose the principle of taxation by Parliament. Greene & Pole 2008, pp. 155–156 In December 1773, a group called the Sons of Liberty disguised as Mohawks dumped crates of tea into Boston Harbor, an event later known as the Boston Tea Party. The British Parliament responded by passing the so-called Intolerable Acts, aimed specifically at Massachusetts, although many colonists and members of the Whig opposition considered them a threat to liberty in general. This increased sympathy for the Patriot cause locally, in the British Parliament, and in the London press. Ammerman 1974, p. 15

Break with the British Crown

Throughout the 18th century, the elected lower houses in the colonial legislatures gradually wrested power from their governors. Olsen 1992, pp. 543–544 Dominated by smaller landowners and merchants, these assemblies now established ad-hoc provincial legislatures, effectively replacing royal control. With the exception of Georgia, twelve colonies sent representatives to the First Continental Congress to agree on a unified response to the crisis. Ferling 2003, p. 112 Many of the delegates feared that a boycott would result in war and sent a Petition to the King calling for the repeal of the Intolerable Acts. Ferling 2015, p. 102 After some debate, on September 17, 1774, Congress endorsed the Massachusetts Suffolk Resolves and on October 20 passed the Continental Association, which instituted economic sanctions and a boycott of goods against Britain. Greene & Pole 2008, p. 199

While denying its authority over internal American affairs, a faction led by James Duane and future Loyalist Joseph Galloway insisted Congress recognize Parliament's right to regulate colonial trade. Expecting concessions by the North administration, Congress authorized the colonial legislatures to enforce the boycott; this succeeded in reducing British imports by 97% from 1774 to 1775. Paine, Kramnick (Ed.) 1982, p. 21 However, on February 9 Parliament declared Massachusetts to be in rebellion and instituted a blockade of the colony. Ferling 2007, pp. 62–64 In July, the Restraining Acts limited colonial trade with the British West Indies and Britain and barred New England ships from the Newfoundland cod fisheries. The tension led to a scramble for control of militia stores, which each assembly was legally obliged to maintain for defense. Axelrod 2009, p. 83 On April 19, a British attempt to secure the Concord arsenal culminated in the Battles of Lexington and Concord, which began the Revolutionary War. Fischer, D. 2004, p. 76

Political reactions

After the Patriot victory at Concord, moderates in Congress led by John Dickinson drafted the Olive Branch Petition, offering to accept royal authority in return for George III mediating in the dispute. O'Shaughnessy 2013, p. 25 However, since the petition was immediately followed by the Declaration of the Causes and Necessity of Taking Up Arms, Colonial Secretary Lord Dartmouth viewed the offer as insincere and refused to present the petition to the king. Brown 1941, pp. 29–31 Although constitutionally correct, since the monarch could not oppose his own government, it disappointed those Americans who hoped he would mediate in the dispute, while the hostility of his language annoyed even Loyalist members of Congress. Combined with the Proclamation of Rebellion, issued on August 23 in response to the Battle at Bunker Hill, it ended hopes of a peaceful settlement. Ketchum 2014a, p. 211

Backed by the Whigs, Parliament initially rejected the imposition of coercive measures by 170 votes, fearing an aggressive policy would drive the Americans towards independence. Maier 1998, p. 25 However, by the end of 1774 the collapse of British authority meant both Lord North and George III were convinced war was inevitable. Ferling 2003, pp. 123–124 After Boston, Gage halted operations and awaited reinforcements; the Irish Parliament approved the recruitment of new regiments, while allowing Catholics to enlist for the first time. Lecky 1892, vol. 3, pp. 162–165 Britain also signed a series of treaties with German states to supply additional troops. Davenport 1917, pp. 132–144 Within a year, it had an army of over 32,000 men in America, the largest ever sent outside Europe at the time. Smith, D. 2012, pp. 21–23 The employment of German soldiers against people viewed as British citizens was opposed by many in Parliament and by the colonial assemblies; combined with the lack of activity by Gage, opposition to the use of foreign troops allowed the Patriots to take control of the legislatures. Miller, J. 1959, pp. 410–412

Declaration of Independence

Support for independence was boosted by Thomas Paine's pamphlet ''Common Sense'', which was published on January 10, 1776, and argued for American self-government and was widely reprinted. Maier 1998, pp. 33–34 To draft the Declaration of Independence, the Second Continental Congress appointed the Committee of Five: Thomas Jefferson, John Adams, Benjamin Franklin, Roger Sherman, and Robert Livingston. McCullough 2005, pp. 119–122 The declaration was written almost exclusively by Jefferson.

Identifying inhabitants of the Thirteen Colonies as "one people", the declaration simultaneously dissolved political links with Britain, while including a long list of alleged violations of "English rights" committed by George III. This is also one of the first times that the colonies were referred to as "United States", rather than the more common United Colonies. Ferling 2007, pp. 112, 118

On July 2, Congress voted for independence and published the declaration on July 4. Maier 1998, pp. 160–161 At this point, the revolution ceased to be an internal dispute over trade and tax policies and had evolved into a civil war, since each state represented in Congress was engaged in a struggle with Britain, but also split between American Patriots and American Loyalists. Mays 2019, p. 2 Patriots generally supported independence from Britain and a new national union in Congress, while Loyalists remained faithful to British rule. Estimates of numbers vary, one suggestion being the population as a whole was split evenly between committed Patriots, committed Loyalists, and those who were indifferent. Mays 2019, p. 3 Others calculate the split as 40% Patriot, 40% neutral, 20% Loyalist, but with considerable regional variations. Greene & Pole 2008, p. 235

At the onset of the war, the Second Continental Congress realized defeating Britain required foreign alliances and intelligence-gathering. The Committee of Secret Correspondence was formed for "the sole purpose of corresponding with our friends in Great Britain and other parts of the world". From 1775 to 1776, the committee shared information and built alliances through secret correspondence, as well as employing secret agents in Europe to gather intelligence, conduct undercover operations, analyze foreign publications, and initiate Patriot propaganda campaigns. CIA 2007, "Intelligence Until WWII" Paine served as secretary, while Benjamin Franklin and Silas Deane, sent to France to recruit military engineers, were instrumental in securing French aid in Paris. Rose A. 2014 006 p. 43

War breaks out

Early engagements

On April 14, 1775, Sir Thomas Gage, Commander-in-Chief, North America and Governor of Massachusetts, received orders to take action against the Patriots. He decided to destroy militia ordnance stored at Concord, Massachusetts, and capture John Hancock and Samuel Adams, who were considered the principal instigators of the rebellion. The operation was to begin around midnight on April 19, in the hope of completing it before the American Patriots could respond. Ferling, 2007, p. 29Fischer, p. 85 However, Paul Revere learned of the plan and notified Captain John Parker (captain), Parker, commander of the Concord, Massachusetts, Concord militia, who prepared to resist. Ferling 2007, pp. 29–30 The first action of the war, commonly referred to as the shot heard round the world, was a brief skirmish at Lexington, followed by the full-scale Battles of Lexington and Concord. British troops suffered around 300 casualties before withdrawing to Boston, which was then Siege of Boston, besieged by the militia. Ketchum 2014a, pp. 18, 54

In May 1775, 4,500 British reinforcements arrived under Generals William Howe, John Burgoyne, and Henry Clinton (American War of Independence), Sir Henry Clinton. Ketchum 2014a, pp. 2–9 On June 17, they seized the Charlestown Peninsula at the Battle of Bunker Hill, a frontal assault in which they suffered over 1,000 casualties.#higginbotham1983, Higginbotham 1983 [1971], pp. 75–77 Dismayed at the costly attack which had gained them little, Ketchum 2014a, pp. 183, 198–209 Gage appealed to London for a larger army,#rankin, Rankin 1987, p. 63 but instead was replaced as commander by Howe.

On June 14, 1775, Congress took control of Patriot forces outside Boston, and Congressional leader John Adams nominated Washington as commander-in-chief of the newly formed Continental Army.#chernow2010, Chernow, 2010, p. 186 On June 16, Hancock officially proclaimed him "General and Commander in Chief of the army of the United Colonies."#chernow2010, Chernow, 2010, p. 187 He assumed command on July 3, preferring to Fortification of Dorchester Heights, fortify Dorchester Heights outside Boston rather than assaulting it. McCullough 2005, p. 53 In early March 1776, Colonel Henry Knox arrived with Noble train of artillery, heavy artillery acquired in the Capture of Fort Ticonderoga.#Frothingham, Frothingham 1903, pp. 100–101 Under cover of darkness, on March 5, Washington placed these on Dorchester Heights, Ferling 2003, p. 183 from where they could fire on the town and British ships in Boston Harbor. Fearing another Bunker Hill, Howe evacuated the city on Evacuation Day (Massachusetts), March 17 without further loss and sailed to Halifax, Nova Scotia, while Washington moved south to New York City.#alden1969, Alden 1969, pp. 188–190

Beginning in August 1775, Privateer#United States, American privateers raided towns in Nova Scotia, including Raid on St. John (1775), Saint John, Raid on Charlottetown (1775), Charlottetown, and Raid on Yarmouth, Nova Scotia (1775), Yarmouth. In 1776, John Paul Jones and Jonathan Eddy attacked Raid on Canso (1776), Canso and Battle of Fort Cumberland, Fort Cumberland respectively. British officials in Province of Quebec (1763–1791), Quebec began negotiating with the Iroquois#American Revolution, Iroquois for their support,#smith1907Ja, Smith, J. 1907 vol. 1, p. 293 while US envoys urged them to remain neutral.#glatthaar, Glatthaar 2007, pp. 91, 93 Aware of Native American leanings toward the British and fearing an Anglo-Indian attack from Canada, Congress authorized a second invasion in April 1775. Greene & Pole 2008, pp. 504–505 After the defeat at the Battle of Quebec (1775), Battle of Quebec on December 31,#randall'mhq, Randall 1990, pp. 38–39 the Americans maintained a loose blockade of the city until they retreated on May 6, 1776.#lanctot, Lanctot 1967, pp. 141–246 A second defeat at Battle of Trois-Rivières, Trois-Rivières on June 8 ended operations in Quebec.#stanley, Stanley 2006, pp. 127–128

British pursuit was initially blocked by American naval vessels on Lake Champlain until victory at Battle of Valcour Island, Valcour Island on October 11 forced the Americans to withdraw to Fort Ticonderoga, while in December an uprising in Nova Scotia sponsored by Massachusetts was defeated at Battle of Fort Cumberland (1776), Fort Cumberland.#smithJ1907a, Smith, J. 1907 vol. 1, p. 242 These failures impacted public support for the Patriot cause, Watson and Clark 1960, p. 203 and aggressive anti-Loyalist policies in the New England colonies alienated the Canadians.#lefkowitz2007, Lefkowitz 2007, pp. 264–265

In Virginia, Dunmore's Proclamation on November 7, 1775, promised freedom to any Slavery in the colonial United States, slaves who fled their Patriot masters and agreed to fight for the Crown.#levy2007, Levy 2007, p. 74 British forces were defeated at Battle of Great Bridge, Great Bridge on December 9 and took refuge on British ships anchored near Norfolk. When the Third Virginia Convention refused to disband its militia or accept martial law, John Murray, 4th Earl of Dunmore, Lord Dunmore ordered the Burning of Norfolk on January 1, 1776.Russell 2000, p. 73

The siege of Savage's Old Fields began on November 19 in Province of South Carolina, South Carolina between Loyalist and Patriot militias,#mccrady1775, McCrady 1901, p. 89 and the Loyalists were subsequently driven out of the colony in the Snow Campaign.#landrum1897, Landrum 1897, pp. 80–81 Loyalists were recruited in Province of North Carolina, North Carolina to reassert British rule in the South, but they were decisively defeated in the Battle of Moore's Creek Bridge.#wilson2005, Wilson 2005, p. 33 A British expedition sent to reconquer South Carolina in the American Revolution, South Carolina launched an attack on Charleston in the Battle of Sullivan's Island on June 28, 1776,#hibbert, Hibbert 2008, p. 106 but it failed.#bicheno14, Bicheno 2014, pp. 154, 158

A shortage of gunpowder led Congress to authorize a naval expedition against the Bahamas to secure ordnance stored there.#field, Field 1898, p. 104 On March 3, 1776, an American squadron under the command of Esek Hopkins landed at the east end of Raid of Nassau, Nassau and encountered minimal resistance at Fort Montagu. Hopkins' troops then marched on Old Fort of Nassau, Fort Nassau. Hopkins had promised governor Montfort Browne and the civilian inhabitants that their lives and property would not be in any danger if they offered no resistance; they complied. Hopkins captured large stores of powder and other munitions that was so great he had to impress an extra ship in the harbor to transport the supplies back home, when he departed on March 17.#field, Field 1898, pp. 114–118 A month later, after a Battle of Block Island, brief skirmish with , they returned to New London, Connecticut, the base for American naval operations.#field, Field 1898, pp. 120–125

British New York counter-offensive

After regrouping at History of Halifax (former city)#The American Revolution, Halifax in Nova Scotia, Fischer, D. 2004, pp. 78–76 Howe set sail for New York (state), New York in June 1776 and began landing troops on Staten Island near the entrance to New York Harbor on July 2. The Americans rejected Howe's informal attempt to negotiate peace on July 30;#ketchum73, Ketchum 2014 [1973], p. 104 Washington knew that an attack on the city was imminent and realized that he needed advance information to deal with disciplined British regular troops.

On August 12, 1776, Patriot Thomas Knowlton was ordered to form an elite group for reconnaissance and secret missions. Knowlton's Rangers, which included Nathan Hale, became the Army's first intelligence unit.#johnston1897, Johnston 1897, p. 61 When Washington was driven off Long Island, he soon realized that he would need to professionalize military intelligence. With aid from Benjamin Tallmadge, Washington launched the six-man Culper Ring, Culper spy ring.#baker2014, Baker 2014, Chap. 12 The efforts of Washington and the Culper Spy Ring substantially increased the effective allocation and deployment of Continental regiments in the field. Throughout the war, Washington spent more than 10 percent of his total military funds on Intelligence in the American Revolutionary War, military intelligence.#cia, CIA 2011, Historical Document

Washington split the Continental Army into positions on Manhattan#American Revolution and the early United States, Manhattan and across the East River in western Long Island. Fischer, D. 2004, pp. 89, 381 On August 27 at the Battle of Long Island, Howe outflanked Washington and forced him back to Brooklyn Heights#Early settlement, Brooklyn Heights, but he did not attempt to encircle Washington's forces.#adams63, Adams 1963 [1895–96], p. 657 Through the night of August 28, Knox bombarded the British. Knowing they were up against overwhelming odds, Washington ordered the assembly of a war council on August 29; all agreed to retreat to Manhattan. Washington quickly had his troops assembled and ferried them across the East River to Manhattan on flat-bottomed Bateau, freight boats without any losses in men or ordnance, leaving General Thomas Mifflin's regiments as a rearguard. McCullough 2005, pp. 184–186

Howe met with a delegation from the Second Continental Congress at the September Staten Island Peace Conference, but it failed to conclude peace, largely because the British delegates only had the authority to offer pardons and could not recognize independence.#mcguire2011, McGuire 2011, pp. 165–166 On September 15, Howe seized control of New York City when the British Landing at Kip's Bay, landed at Kip's Bay and unsuccessfully engaged the Americans at the Battle of Harlem Heights the following day. Fischer, D. 2004, pp. 102–107 On October 18, Howe failed to encircle the Americans at the Battle of Pell's Point, and the Americans withdrew. Howe declined to close with Washington's army on October 28 at the Battle of White Plains and instead attacked a hill that was of no strategic value. Fischer, D. 2004, pp. 102–111

Washington's retreat isolated his remaining forces and the British captured Battle of Fort Washington, Fort Washington on November 16. The British victory there amounted to Washington's most disastrous defeat with the loss of 3,000 prisoners.#ketchum2014a, Ketchum 2014 [1973], pp. 111, 130 The remaining American regiments on Long Island fell back four days later. Fischer, D. 2004, pp. 109–125 General Henry Clinton wanted to pursue Washington's disorganized army, but he was first required to commit 6,000 troops to capture History of Rhode Island#Revolutionary era, 1775–1790, Newport, Rhode Island, to secure the Loyalist port. McCullough 2005, p. 122 General Charles Cornwallis, 1st Marquess Cornwallis, Charles Cornwallis pursued Washington, but Howe ordered him to halt.#tucker2002, Tucker 2002, pp. 22–23

The outlook following the defeat at Fort Washington appeared bleak for the American cause. The reduced Continental Army had dwindled to fewer than 5,000 men and was reduced further when enlistments expired at the end of the year.#schecter, Schecter 2003, pp. 266–267 Popular support wavered, and morale declined. On December 20, 1776, the Continental Congress abandoned the revolutionary capital of Philadelphia and moved to Baltimore, where it remained until February 27, 1777. Fischer, D. 2004, pp. 138–142 Loyalist activity surged in the wake of the American defeat, especially in History of New York (state)#New York in the American Revolution, New York state.#morris1965, Morris, R.B. Morris 1983 (1965), p. 139

In London, news of the victorious Long Island campaign was well received with festivities held in the capital. Public support reached a peak. McCullough 2005, p. 195 Strategic deficiencies among Patriot forces were evident: Washington divided a numerically weaker army in the face of a stronger one, his inexperienced staff misread the military situation, and American troops fled in the face of enemy fire. The successes led to predictions that the British could win within a year.#adams63, Adams 1963 [1895–96], pp. 650–670 The British established winter quarters in the New York City area and anticipated renewed campaigning the following spring.#schecter, Schecter 2003, pp. 259–263

Patriot resurgence

On the night of December 25–26, 1776, Washington George Washington's crossing of the Delaware River, crossed the Delaware River, leading a column of Continental Army troops from today's Bucks County, Pennsylvania, to today's Mercer County, New Jersey, in a logistically challenging and dangerous operation.

Meanwhile, the Hessians were involved in numerous clashes with small bands of Patriots and were often aroused by false alarms at night in the weeks before the actual Battle of Trenton. By Christmas they were tired, while a heavy snowstorm led their commander, Colonel Johann Rall, to assume no significant attack would occur. At daybreak on the 26th, the American Patriots surprised and overwhelmed Rall and his troops, who lost over 20 killed including Rall, while 900 prisoners, German cannons and supplies were captured. Fischer, D. 2004, pp. 206–208, 254

The Battle of Trenton restored the American army's morale, reinvigorated the Patriot cause,#wood1995, Wood 1995, pp. 72–74 and dispelled their fear of what they regarded as Hessian "mercenaries".#mauch2003, Mauch 2003, p. 416 A British attempt to retake Trenton was repulsed at Battle of the Assunpink Creek, Assunpink Creek on January 2; Fischer, D. 2004, p. 307 during the night, Washington outmaneuvered Cornwallis, then defeated his rearguard in the Battle of Princeton the following day. The two victories helped convince the French that the Americans were worthy military allies. McCullough 2005, p. 290

After his success at Princeton, Washington entered winter quarters at Morristown, New Jersey#Eighteenth century, Morristown, New Jersey, where he remained until May#lengel2005, Lengel 2005, p. 208 and received Congressional direction to inoculate all Patriot troops against smallpox.#washington1932, Washington 1932, "Writings" v. 7, pp. 38, 130–131 With the exception of a Forage War, minor skirmishing between the two armies which continued until March, Fischer, D. 2004, pp. 345–358 Howe made no attempt to attack the Americans.#lecky4, Lecky 1891 Vol. 4, p. 57

British northern strategy fails

The 1776 campaign demonstrated that regaining New England would be a prolonged affair, which led to a change in British strategy to isolating the north by taking control of the Hudson River, allowing them to focus on the south where Loyalist support was believed to be substantial.#ketchum97, Ketchum 1997, pp. 79–80 In December 1776, Howe wrote to the Colonial Secretary George Germain, 1st Viscount Sackville, Lord Germain, proposing a limited offensive against Philadelphia, while a second force moved down the Hudson from Canada.#ketchum97, Ketchum 1997, pp. 81–82 Burgoyne supplied several alternatives, all of which gave him responsibility for the offensive, with Howe remaining on the defensive. The option selected required him to lead the main force south from Montreal down the Hudson Valley, while a detachment under Barry St. Leger moved east from Lake Ontario. The two would meet at History of Albany, New York (1664–1784)#1744−American Revolution, Albany, leaving Howe to decide whether to join them.#ketchum97, Ketchum 1997, p. 84 Reasonable in principle, this did not account for the logistical difficulties involved and Burgoyne erroneously assumed Howe would remain on the defensive; Germain's failure to make this clear meant he opted to attack Philadelphia campaign, Philadelphia instead.#ketchum97, Ketchum 1997, pp. 85–86

With a mixed force of British regulars, professional German soldiers and Canadian militia Burgoyne set out on June 14, 1777, and Siege of Fort Ticonderoga (1777), captured Fort Ticonderoga on July 5. As General Horatio Gates retreated, his troops blocked roads, destroyed bridges, dammed streams, and stripped the area of food.#ketchum97, Ketchum 1997, pp. 244–249 This slowed Burgoyne's progress and forced him to send out large foraging expeditions; one of more than 700 British troops were captured at the Battle of Bennington on August 16.#gabriel2012, Gabriel 2012, p. x St Leger moved east and besieged Siege of Fort Stanwix, Fort Stanwix; despite defeating an American relief force at the Battle of Oriskany on August 6, Burgoyne was abandoned by his Indian allies and withdrew to Quebec on August 22.#ketchum97, Ketchum 1997, p. 332 Now isolated and outnumbered by Gates, Burgoyne continued onto Albany rather than retreating to Fort Ticonderoga, reaching Saratoga, New York, Saratoga on September 13. He asked Clinton for support while constructing defenses around the town.#ketchum97, Ketchum 1997, pp. 337–339

Morale among his troops rapidly declined, and an unsuccessful attempt to break past Gates at the Battles of Saratoga#First Saratoga, Battle of Freeman Farms on September 19 resulted in 600 British casualties.#ketchum97, Ketchum 1997, pp. 368–369 When Clinton advised he could not reach them, Burgoyne's subordinates advised retreat; a reconnaissance in force on October 7 was repulsed by Gates at the Battles of Saratoga#Second Saratoga, Battle of Bemis Heights, forcing them back into Saratoga with heavy losses. By October 11, all hope of British escape had vanished; persistent rain reduced the camp to a "squalid hell" and supplies were dangerously low. Ferling, 2007, pp. 238–239 Burgoyne capitulated on October 17; around 6,222 soldiers, including German forces commanded by General Friedrich Adolf Riedesel, surrendered their arms before being taken to Boston, where they were to be transported to England.#ketchum97, Ketchum 1997, pp. 421–424

After securing additional supplies, Howe made another attempt on Philadelphia by landing his troops in Chesapeake Bay on August 24.#stedman1, Stedman 1794, Vol. 1, pp. 317–319 He now compounded failure to support Burgoyne by missing repeated opportunities to destroy his opponent: despite defeating Washington at the Battle of Brandywine on September 11, he then allowed him to withdraw in good order.#adams1911, Adams 1911, p. 43 After dispersing an American detachment at Battle of Paoli, Paoli on September 20, Cornwallis occupied Philadelphia on September 26, with the main force of 9,000 under Howe based just to the north at Germantown, Philadelphia, Germantown.#ward1952, Ward, C. 1952, pp. 361–362 Washington Battle of Germantown, attacked them on October 4, but was repulsed.#taffe, Taaffe 2003, pp. 95–100

To prevent Howe's forces in Philadelphia being resupplied by sea, the Patriots erected Fort Mifflin and nearby Fort Mercer on the east and west banks of the Delaware respectively, and placed Cheval de frise, obstacles in the river south of the city. This was supported by a small flotilla of Continental Navy ships on the Delaware, supplemented by the Pennsylvania State Navy, commanded by John Hazelwood. An attempt by the Royal Navy to take the forts in the October 20 to 22 Battle of Red Bank failed;#daughan2011, Daughan, 2011, pp. 148–155#mcgeorge1905, McGeorge, 1905, pp. 4–8 a second attack captured Fort Mifflin on November 16, while Fort Mercer was abandoned two days later when Cornwallis breached the walls.#cadwalader1901, Cadwalader 1901, p. 20 His supply lines secured, Howe tried to tempt Washington into giving battle, but after inconclusive skirmishing at the Battle of White Marsh from December 5 to 8, he withdrew to Philadelphia for the winter.#cadwalader1901, Cadwalader 1901, p. 22

On December 19, the Americans followed suit and entered winter quarters at Valley Forge. As Washington's domestic opponents contrasted his lack of battlefield success with Gates' victory at Saratoga,#cadwalader1901, Cadwalader 1901, pp. 22, 27 foreign observers such as Frederick the Great were equally impressed with Washington's command at Germantown, which demonstrated resilience and determination.#fiske1891, Fiske 1891, p. 332 Over the winter, poor conditions, supply problems and low morale resulted in 2,000 deaths, with another 3,000 unfit for duty due to lack of shoes.#chernow2010, Chernow 2010 (2011), pp. 327–328 However, Baron Friedrich Wilhelm von Steuben took the opportunity to introduce Prussian Army drill and infantry tactics to "model companies" in each Continental Army regiment, who then instructed their home units.#lockhart, Lockhart 2008, pp. 97–103 Despite Valley Forge being only twenty miles away, Howe made no effort to attack their camp, an action some critics argue could have ended the war.#risch1981, Risch, 1981, pp. 322, 417–418

Foreign intervention

Like his predecessors, French foreign minister Charles Gravier, comte de Vergennes, Vergennes considered the 1763 Peace a national humiliation and viewed the war as an opportunity to weaken Britain. He initially avoided open conflict, but allowed American ships to take on cargoes in French ports, a technical violation of neutrality. Ferling 2007, p. 117 Vergennes persuaded Louis XVI to secretly fund a Roderigue Hortalez and Company, government front company to purchase munitions for the Patriots, carried in neutral Dutch ships and imported through Sint Eustatius in the Caribbean.#jones2002, Jones 2002, pp. 5–6

Many Americans opposed a French alliance, fearing to "exchange one tyranny for another", but this changed after a series of military setbacks in early 1776. As France had nothing to gain from the colonies reconciling with Britain, Congress had three choices: making peace on British terms, continuing the struggle on their own, or proclaiming independence, guaranteed by France. Although the Declaration of Independence had wide public support, over 20% of Congressmen voted against an alliance with France. Ferling 2007, pp. 117–119 Congress agreed to the treaty with reluctance and as the war moved in their favor increasingly lost interest in it.#chambers1999, Chambers 1999

Silas Deane was sent to Paris to begin negotiations with Vergennes, whose key objectives were replacing Britain as the United States' primary commercial and military partner while securing the French West Indies from American expansion.#chambers2004, Chambers 2004 These islands were extremely valuable; in 1772, the value of sugar and coffee produced by Saint-Domingue on its own exceeded that of all American exports combined.#eclov2013, Eclov 2013 pp. 23–24 Talks progressed slowly until October 1777, when British defeat at Saratoga and their apparent willingness to negotiate peace convinced Vergennes only a permanent alliance could prevent the "disaster" of Anglo-American rapprochement. Assurances of formal French support allowed Congress to reject the Carlisle Peace Commission and insist on nothing short of complete independence.#stockley2001, Stockley 2001, pp. 11–14

On February 6, 1778, France and the United States signed the Treaty of Amity and Commerce (France–United States), Treaty of Amity and Commerce regulating trade between the two countries, followed by a defensive military alliance against Britain, the Treaty of Alliance. In return for French guarantees of American independence, Congress undertook to defend their interests in the West Indies, while both sides agreed not to make a separate peace; conflict over these provisions would lead to the 1798 to 1800 Quasi-War. Charles III of Spain was invited to join on the same terms but refused, largely due to concerns over the impact of the Revolution on Spanish colonies in the Americas. Spain had complained on multiple occasions about encroachment by American settlers into Louisiana (New Spain), Louisiana, a problem that could only get worse once the United States replaced Britain.

Although Spain ultimately made important contributions to American success, in the Treaty of Aranjuez, Charles agreed only to support Anglo-French War (1778–1783), France's war with Britain outside America, in return for help in recovering Gibraltar, Menorca and Spanish Florida. Davenport 1917, pp. 145–146 The terms were confidential since several conflicted with American aims; for example, the French claimed exclusive control of the Newfoundland cod fisheries, a non-negotiable for colonies like Massachusetts. Davenport 1917, p. 146 One less well-known impact of this agreement was the abiding American distrust of 'foreign entanglements'; the U.S. would not sign another treaty with France until their NATO agreement of 1949. This was because the US had agreed not to make peace without France, while Aranjuez committed France to keep fighting until Spain recovered Gibraltar, effectively making it a condition of U.S. independence without the knowledge of Congress.#weeks2013, Weeks 2013, p. 27

To encourage French participation in the struggle for independence, the U.S. representative in Paris, Silas Deane promised promotion and command positions to any French officer who joined the Continental Army. Such as Gilbert du Motier, Marquis de Lafayette, whom Congress via Dean appointed a major general, on July 31, 1777.

When the war started, Britain tried to borrow the Dutch-based Scots Brigade for service in America, but pro-Patriot sentiment led the States General of the Netherlands, States General to refuse.#edler, Edler 2001 [1911], pp. 28–32 Although the Republic was no longer a major power, prior to 1774 they still dominated the European carrying trade, and Dutch merchants made large profits shipping French-supplied munitions to the Patriots. This ended when Britain Fourth Anglo-Dutch War, declared war in December 1780, a conflict that proved disastrous to the Dutch economy.#scott1988, Scott 1988, pp. 572–573

The British government failed to take into account the strength of the American merchant marine and support from European countries, which allowed the colonies to import munitions and continue trading with relative impunity. While well aware of this, the North administration delayed placing the Royal Navy on a war footing for cost reasons; this prevented the institution of an effective blockade.#syrett1998, Syrett 1998, p. 2 Traditional British policy was to employ European land-based allies to divert the opposition; in 1778, they were diplomatically isolated and faced war on multiple fronts.#syrett1998, Syrett 1998, pp. 18–19

Meanwhile, George III had given up on subduing America while Britain had a European war to fight.#ferling2013, Ferling 2007, p. 294 He did not welcome war with France, but he held the Annus Mirabilis of 1759, British victories over France in the Seven Years' War as a reason to believe in ultimate victory over France.#syrett1998, Syrett 1998, p. 17 Britain subsequently changed its focus into the Caribbean theater,#syrett1998, Syrett 1998, p. 18 and diverted major military resources away from America.#higginbotham1983, Higginbotham 1983 [1971], pp. 175–188

Stalemate in the North

At the end of 1777, Howe resigned and was replaced by Sir Henry Clinton on May 24, 1778; with French entry into the war, he was ordered to consolidate his forces in New York. On June 18, the British departed Philadelphia with the reinvigorated Americans in pursuit; the Battle of Monmouth on June 28 was inconclusive but boosted Patriot morale. That midnight, the newly installed Clinton continued his retreat to New York.#chernow2010, Chernow 2010 (2011), p. 343 A French naval force under Admiral Charles Henri Hector d'Estaing was sent to assist Washington; deciding New York was too formidable a target, in August they launched a combined attack on Newport, with General John Sullivan (general), John Sullivan commanding land forces.#morrissey1997, Morrissey 2004, pp. 77–78 The resulting Battle of Rhode Island was indecisive; badly damaged by a storm, the French withdrew to avoid risking their ships.#daughan2011, Daughan 2011 [2008], pp. 174–176

Further activity was limited to British raids on Battle of Chestnut Neck, Chestnut Neck and The Affair at Little Egg Harbor, Little Egg Harbor in October.#goos, Goos In July 1779, the Americans captured British positions at Battle of Stony Point, Stony Point and Battle of Paulus Hook, Paulus Hook.#hazard54, Hazard 1829, p. 54 Clinton unsuccessfully tried to tempt Washington into a decisive engagement by sending General William Tryon to Tryon's raid, raid Connecticut.#nelson1999, Nelson 1999, p. 170 In July, a large American naval operation, the Penobscot Expedition, attempted to retake District of Maine, Maine but was defeated.#bicheno14, Bicheno 2014, p. 149
Persistent Northern theater of the American Revolutionary War after Saratoga#Frontier war, Iroquois raids in New York and Pennsylvania led to the punitive Sullivan Expedition from July to September 1779. Involving more than 4,000 patriot soldiers, the scorched earth campaign destroyed more than 40 Iroquois villages and 160,000 bushels (4,000 mts) of maize, leaving the Iroquois destitute and destroying the Iroquois confederacy as an independent power on the American frontier. However, 5,000 Iroquois fled to Canada, where, supplied and supported by the British, they continued their raids.#fischer2008, Fischer, J. 2008, p. 86

During the winter of 1779–1780, the Continental Army suffered greater hardships than at Valley Forge.#tolson, Tolson 2008, "Washington's Savvy Won the Day" Morale was poor, public support fell away, the Continental dollar was virtually worthless, the army was plagued with supply problems, desertion was common, and mutinies occurred in the Pennsylvania Line Mutiny, Pennsylvania Line and Pompton Mutiny, New Jersey Line regiments over the conditions.#chandler, Chandler 2017, pp. 363–380

In June 1780, Clinton sent 6,000 men under Wilhelm von Knyphausen to retake New Jersey, but they were halted by local militia at the Battle of Connecticut Farms; although the Americans withdrew, Knyphausen felt he was not strong enough to engage Washington's main force and retreated.#fleming, Fleming 2005 [1973], pp. 174–175 A second attempt two weeks later ended in a British defeat at the Battle of Springfield (1780), Battle of Springfield, effectively ending their ambitions in New Jersey.#fleming, Fleming 2005 [1973], pp. 232, 302 In July, Washington appointed Benedict Arnold commander of West Point; his attempt to betray the fort to the British failed due to incompetent planning, and the plot was revealed when his British contact John André was captured and executed.#palmer2010, Palmer 2010, pp. 340–342 Arnold escaped to New York and switched sides, an action justified in a pamphlet addressed "To the Inhabitants of America"; the Patriots condemned his betrayal, while he found himself almost as unpopular with the British.#palmer2010, Palmer 2010, pp. 376–377

War in the South

The Southern Strategy was developed by Lord Germain, based on input from London-based Loyalists, including Joseph Galloway. They argued that it made no sense to fight the Patriots in the north where they were strongest, while the New England economy was reliant on trade with Britain. On the other hand, duties on tobacco made the South far more profitable for Britain, while local support meant securing it required small numbers of regular troops. Victory would leave a truncated United States facing British possessions to the south, north, and west; with the East Coast of the United States, Atlantic seaboard controlled by the Royal Navy, Congress would be forced to agree to terms. However, assumptions about the level of Loyalist support proved wildly optimistic.#pearson1993, Pearson 1993, pp. 16–19

Germain ordered Augustine Prévost, the British commander in East Florida, to advance into Georgia in the American Revolution#Return of the British Army, Georgia in December 1778. Archibald Campbell (British Army officer, born 1739), Lieutenant-Colonel Archibald Campbell, an experienced officer, Capture of Savannah, captured Savannah on December 29, 1778. He recruited a Loyalist militia of nearly 1,100, many of whom allegedly joined only after Campbell threatened to confiscate their property.#wilson2005, Wilson 2005, p. 87 Poor motivation and training made them unreliable troops, as demonstrated in their defeat by Patriot militia at the Battle of Kettle Creek on February 14, 1779, although this was offset by British victory at Battle of Brier Creek, Brier Creek on March 3.#morrill, Morrill 1993, pp. 46–50

In June 1779, Prévost launched an abortive assault on Charleston, before retreating to Savannah, an operation notorious for widespread looting by British troops that enraged both Loyalists and Patriots. In October, a joint French and American operation under d'Estaing and General Benjamin Lincoln failed to Siege of Savannah, recapture Savannah.#wilson2005, Wilson 2005, p. 112 Prévost was replaced by Lord Cornwallis, who assumed responsibility for Germain's strategy; he soon realized estimates of Loyalist support were considerably over-stated, and he needed far more regular forces.#pearson1993, Pearson 1993, pp. 22–23

Reinforced by Clinton, Cornwallis's troops captured Charleston in May 1780, inflicting the most serious Patriot defeat of the war; over 5,000 prisoners were taken and the Continental Army in the south effectively destroyed. On May 29, Lieutenant-Colonel Banastre Tarleton's mainly Loyalist force routed a Continental Army force nearly three times its size under Colonel Abraham Buford at the Battle of Waxhaws. The battle is controversial for allegations of a massacre, which were later used as a recruiting tool by the Patriots.#piecuch2004, Piecuch 2004, pp. 4–8

Clinton returned to New York, leaving Cornwallis to oversee the south; despite their success, the two men left barely on speaking terms.#borick2003, Borick 2003, pp. 127–128 The Southern strategy depended on local support, but this was undermined by a series of coercive measures. Previously, captured Patriots were sent home after swearing not to take up arms against the king; they were now required to fight their former comrades, while the confiscation of Patriot-owned plantations led formerly neutral "grandees" to side with them.#gordon, Gordon and Keegan 2007, pp. 101–102 Skirmishes at Battle of Williamson's Plantation, Williamson's Plantation, Cedar Springs, Battle of Rocky Mount, Rocky Mount, and Battle of Hanging Rock, Hanging Rock signaled widespread resistance to the new oaths throughout South Carolina.#gordon, Gordon and Keegan 2007, pp. 88–92

In July 1780, Congress appointed Gates commander in the south; he was defeated at the Battle of Camden on August 16, leaving Cornwallis free to enter North Carolina.#rankin, Rankin 2011 [1996], p. Despite battlefield success, the British could not control the countryside and Patriot attacks continued; before moving north, Cornwallis sent Loyalist militia under Major Patrick Ferguson to cover his left flank, leaving their forces too far apart to provide mutual support.#buchanan97, Buchanan 1997, p. 202 In early October, Ferguson was defeated at the Battle of Kings Mountain, dispersing organized Loyalist resistance in the region.#Ferling2007, Ferling, 2007, pp. 459–461 Despite this, Cornwallis continued into North Carolina hoping for Loyalist support, while Washington replaced Gates with General Nathanael Greene in December 1780.#buchanan97, Buchanan 1997, p. 275

Greene divided his army, leading his main force southeast pursued by Cornwallis; a detachment was sent southwest under Daniel Morgan, who defeated Tarleton's British Legion (American Revolution), British Legion at Battle of Cowpens, Cowpens on January 17, 1781, nearly eliminating it as a fighting force.#golway2005, Golway 2005, pp. 238–242 The Patriots now held the initiative in the south, with the exception of a Raid of Richmond, raid on Richmond led by Benedict Arnold in January 1781.#peterson1975, Peterson 1975 [1970], pp. 234–238 Greene led Cornwallis on a series of countermarches around North Carolina; by early March, the British were exhausted and short of supplies and Greene felt strong enough to fight the Battle of Guilford Court House on March 15. Although victorious, Cornwallis suffered heavy casualties and retreated to Wilmington, North Carolina#Revolutionary era, Wilmington, North Carolina, seeking supplies and reinforcements.#buchanan97, Buchanan 1997, p. 241

The Patriots now controlled most of the Carolinas and Georgia outside the coastal areas; after a minor reversal at the Battle of Hobkirk's Hill, they recaptured Siege of Fort Watson, Fort Watson and Siege of Fort Motte, Fort Motte on April 15.#fgreene1913, Greene, F. 1913, pp. 234–237 On June 6, Brigadier General Andrew Pickens (congressman), Andrew Pickens captured Siege of Augusta, Augusta, leaving the British in Georgia confined to Charleston and Savannah.#reynolds2012, Reynolds 2012, pp. 255–277 The assumption Loyalists would do most of the fighting left the British short of troops and battlefield victories came at the cost of losses they could not replace. Despite halting Greene's advance at the Battle of Eutaw Springs on September 8, Cornwallis withdrew to Charleston with little to show for his campaign.#pancake1985, Pancake 1985, p. 221

Western campaign

From the beginning of the war, Bernardo de Gálvez, 1st Viscount of Galveston, Bernardo de Gálvez, the List of colonial governors of Louisiana, Governor of Spanish Louisiana, allowed the Americans to import supplies and munitions into History of New Orleans#Spanish interregnum, New Orleans, then ship them to History of Pittsburgh#Gateway to the West (1763–1799), Pittsburgh.#narrett2015, Narrett 2015, p. 81 This provided an alternative transportation route for the Continental Army, bypassing the British blockade of the Atlantic Coast.#chavez, Chavez 2002, p. 108

In February 1778, an expedition of militia to destroy British military supplies in settlements along the Cuyahoga River was halted by adverse weather.#nester2004, Nester 2004, p. 194 Later in the year, a Illinois campaign, second campaign was undertaken to seize the Illinois Country from the British. Virginia militia, ''Canadien'' settlers, and Indian allies commanded by Colonel George Rogers Clark captured Kaskaskia, Illinois, Kaskaskia on July 4 and then secured Vincennes, Indiana, Vincennes, though Vincennes was recaptured by Quebec Governor Henry Hamilton (colonial administrator), Henry Hamilton. The Spanish-aligned fur trader Francis Vigo, an American sympathizer, alerted Clark to the threat posed to his control of the west by Hamilton's position and in early 1779, the Virginians counter-attacked in the siege of Fort Vincennes and took Hamilton prisoner. Clark secured western Quebec Act, British Quebec as the American Northwest Territory in the Treaty of Paris as the Revolutionary War came to an end.#harrison2001, Harrison 2001, pp. 58–60

When Spain joined France's war against Britain in the Anglo-French War in 1779, their treaty specifically excluded Spanish military action in North America. Later that year, however, Gálvez initiated offensive operations against British outposts.#chavez, Chávez 2002, p. 170 First, he cleared British garrisons in History of Baton Rouge, Louisiana#1763–1779: British period, Baton Rouge, History of Louisiana#Spanish interregnum (1763–1803), Louisiana, Fort Bute, and History of Natchez, Mississippi#Colonial history (1716–1783), Natchez, History of Mississippi#European colonial period, Mississippi, and captured five forts.#carlos, Don Jaun Carlos I 1979, speech In doing so, Gálvez opened navigation on the Mississippi River north to the American settlement in Pittsburgh.#Deane2018, Deane 2018, "Spanish New Orleans helped America"

On May 25, 1780, British Colonel Henry Bird Bird's invasion of Kentucky, invaded Kentucky as part of a wider operation to clear American resistance from Quebec to the Gulf Coast of the United States, Gulf Coast. Their advance on New Orleans was repelled by Spanish Governor Gálvez's offensive on Mobile, Alabama, Mobile. Simultaneous British attacks were repulsed on Battle of St. Louis, St. Louis by the Spanish Lieutenant Governor Fernando de Leyba, de Leyba, and on the Illinois County, Virginia, Virginia County courthouse in Cahokia, Illinois, by Lieutenant Colonel Clark. The British initiative under Bird from Detroit was ended at the rumored approach of Clark. The scale of violence in the Licking River (Kentucky)#History, Licking River Valley, was extreme "even for frontier standards." It led to English people, English and Germans, German settlements, who joined Clark's militia when the British and their hired German soldiers withdrew to the Great Lakes.#grenier, Grenier 2005, p. 159 The Americans responded with a major offensive along the Mad River (Ohio), Mad River in August which met with some success in the Battle of Piqua but did not end Indian raids.#nelson1999, Nelson 1999, p. 118

French soldier Augustin de La Balme led a Canadian militia in an attempt to capture Detroit, but they dispersed when Miami tribe, Miami natives led by Little Turtle attacked the encamped settlers on November 5.#gaff, Gaff 2004, p. 85 The war in the west stalemated with the British garrison sitting in Detroit and the Virginians expanding westward settlements north of the Ohio River in the face of British-allied Indian resistance.#skaggs1977, Skaggs 1977, p. 132

In 1781, Galvez and Pollock Gulf Coast campaign, campaigned east along the Gulf Coast to secure West Florida, including British-held Mobile and Pensacola.#raab, Raab 2007, p. 135 The Spanish operations impaired the British supply of armaments to British Indian allies, which effectively suspended a military alliance to attack settlers between the Mississippi River and the Appalachian Mountains.#o'brien2008, O'Brien 2008, p. 124

In 1782, large scale retaliations between settlers and Native Americans in the region included the Gnadenhutten massacre and the Crawford expedition. The 1782 Battle of Blue Licks was one of the last major engagements of the war. News of the treaty between Great Britain and the United States arrived late that year. By this time, about 7% of Kentucky settlers had been killed in battles against Native Americans, contrasted with 1% of the population killed in the Thirteen Colonies. Lingering resentments led to Northwest Indian War#Course of the war, continued fighting in the west after the war officially ended.

British defeat

Clinton spent most of 1781 based in New York City; he failed to construct a coherent operational strategy, partly due to his difficult relationship with Admiral Marriot Arbuthnot. Ferling 2007, p. 444 In Charleston, South Carolina, Charleston, Cornwallis independently developed an aggressive plan for a campaign in Virginia, which he hoped would isolate Greene's army in the Carolinas and cause the collapse of Patriot resistance in the Southern United States, South. This strategy was approved by Lord Germain in London, but neither informed Clinton.#ketchum2014b, Ketchum 2014b, pp. 423, 520

Washington and Jean-Baptiste Donatien de Vimeur, comte de Rochambeau, Rochambeau discussed their options: Washington wanted to attack the British in New York, and Rochambeau wanted to attack them in Virginia, where Cornwallis's forces were less established.#ketchum2014b, Ketchum 2014b, p. 139 Washington eventually gave way, and Lafayette took a combined Franco-American force into Virginia. Ferling 2007, pp. 526–529 Clinton misinterpreted his movements as preparations for an attack on New York and instructed Cornwallis to establish a fortified sea base, where the Royal Navy could evacuate British troops to help defend New York.#grainger2005, Grainger 2005, pp. 43–44

When Lafayette entered Virginia, Cornwallis complied with Clinton's orders and withdrew to Yorktown, Virginia, Yorktown, where he constructed strong defenses and awaited evacuation.#taylor2016, Taylor 2016, pp. 293–295 An agreement by the Spanish Navy to defend the French West Indies allowed Admiral François Joseph Paul de Grasse to relocate to the Atlantic seaboard, a move Arbuthnot did not anticipate. This provided Lafayette naval support, while the failure of previous combined operations at Newport News, Virginia, Newport and Savannah, Georgia, Savannah meant their coordination was planned more carefully.#dull1975, Dull 2015 [1975], pp. 247–248 Despite repeated urging from his subordinates, Cornwallis made no attempt to engage Lafayette before he could establish siege lines.#ketchum2014b, Ketchum 2014b, p. 205 Expecting to be withdrawn within a few days, he also abandoned the outer defenses, which were promptly occupied by the besiegers and hastened British defeat.#lengel2005, Lengel 2005, p. 337

On August 31, a Royal Navy fleet under Thomas Graves, 1st Baron Graves, Thomas Graves left New York for Yorktown.#middleton2014, Middleton 2014, pp. 29–43 After landing troops and munitions for the besiegers on August 30, de Grasse remained in Chesapeake Bay and intercepted him on September 5; although the Battle of the Chesapeake was indecisive in terms of losses, Graves was forced to retreat, leaving Cornwallis isolated.#black1992, Black 1992, p. 110 An attempted breakout over York River (Virginia), York River at Gloucester County, Virginia#Gloucester County formation and divisions, Gloucester Point failed due to bad weather.#dale2005, Dale 2005, pp. 36–37 Under heavy bombardment with dwindling supplies, on October 16 Cornwallis sent emissaries to General Washington to negotiate surrender; after twelve hours of negotiations, the terms of surrender were finalized the following day. Ferling 2007, pp. 534–535 Responsibility for defeat was the subject of fierce public debate between Cornwallis, Clinton, and Germain. Clinton ultimately took most of the blame and spent the rest of his life in relative obscurity.#middleton2014, Middleton 2014, pp. 370–372

Subsequent to Yorktown, American forces were assigned to supervise the armistice between Washington and Clinton made to facilitate British departure following the January 1782 law of Parliament forbidding any further British offensive action in North America. British-American negotiations in Paris led to signed preliminary agreements in November 1782, which acknowledged U.S. independence. The enacted United States Congress, Congressional war objective, a British withdrawal from North America and cession of these regions to the U.S., was completed in stages in East Coast cities. Ferling 2003, pp. 378–379

In the U.S. South, Generals Greene and Wayne observed the British remove their troops from Charleston on December 14, 1782.#fiske1902, Fiske 1902, p. 516 Loyalist provincial militias of whites and free Blacks and Loyalists with slaves were transported to Nova Scotia and the British West Indies. Native American allies of the British and some freed Blacks were left to escape unaided through the American lines.

On April 9, 1783, Washington issued orders that "all acts of hostility" were to cease immediately. That same day, by arrangement with Washington, Carleton issued a similar order to British troops. Ferling 2007, p. 553 As directed by a Congressional resolution of May 26, 1783, all non-commissioned officers and enlisted were furloughed "to their homes" until the "definitive treaty of peace", when they would be automatically discharged. The U.S. armies were directly disbanded in the field as of Washington's General Orders on June 2, 1783.#armour1941, Armour 1941, p. 350 Once the Treaty of Paris was signed with Britain on September 3, 1783, Washington resigned as commander-in-chief of the Continental Army. The last British occupation of New York City ended on November 25, 1783, with the departure of Clinton's replacement, General Sir Guy Carleton, 1st Baron Dorchester, Guy Carleton.#fleming2006, Fleming 2006, p. 312

Strategy and commanders

To win their insurrection, Washington and the Continental Army needed to outlast the British will to fight. To restore British America, the British had to defeat the Continental Army quickly and compel the Second Continental Congress to retract its claim to self-governance. Mays 2019, pp. 1–2 Historian Terry M. Mays of The Citadel identifies three separate types of warfare during the Revolutionary War. The first was a colonial conflict in which objections to imperial trade regulation were as significant as taxation policy. The second was a civil war between American Patriots, American Loyalists, and those who preferred to remain neutral. Particularly in the south, many battles were fought between Patriots and Loyalists with no British involvement, leading to divisions that continued after independence was achieved. Mays 2019, pp. 2–3

The third element was a global war between France, Kingdom of Spain, Spain, the Dutch Republic, and Britain, with America serving as one of several different war theaters. After entering the Revolutionary War in 1778, France provided the Americans money, weapons, soldiers, and naval assistance, while French troops fought under U.S. command in North America. While Spain did not formally join the war in America, they provided access to the Mississippi River and captured British possessions on the Gulf of Mexico that denied bases to the Royal Navy, Invasion of Minorca (1781), retook Menorca and Great Siege of Gibraltar, besieged Gibraltar in Europe. Davenport 1917, p. 168 Although the Dutch Republic was no longer a major power prior to 1774, they still dominated the European carrying trade, and Dutch merchants made large profits by shipping French-supplied munitions to the Patriots. This ended when Britain declared war in December 1780, and the conflict proved disastrous to the Dutch economy.#Scott, Scott 1988, pp. 572–573

American strategy

The Second Continental Congress stood to benefit if the Revolution evolved into a protracted war. Colonial state populations were largely prosperous and depended on local production for food and supplies rather than on imports from Britain. The thirteen colonies were spread across most of North American Atlantic seaboard, stretching 1,000 miles. Most colonial farms were remote from the seaports, and control of four or five major ports did not give Britain control over American inland areas. Each state had established internal distribution systems. Greene & Pole 2008, pp. 36–39 Motivation was also a major asset: each colonial capital had its Early American publishers and printers, own newspapers and printers, and the Patriots enjoyed more popular support than the Loyalists. Britain hoped that the Loyalists would do much of the fighting, but found that the Loyalists did not engage as significantly as they had hoped.

Continental Army

When the Revolutionary War began, the Second Continental Congress lacked a professional army or navy. However, each of the colonies had a long-established system of local militia, which were combat-tested in support of British regulars in the French and Indian War. The colonial state legislatures independently funded and controlled their local militias.

Militiamen were lightly armed, had little training, and usually did not have uniforms. Their units served for only a few weeks or months at a time and lacked the training and discipline of more experienced soldiers. Local county militias were reluctant to travel far from home and were unavailable for extended operations.#black2001, Black 2001 [1991], p. 59 To compensate for this, the Continental Congress established a regular force known as the Continental Army on June 14, 1775, which proved to be the origin of the modern United States Army, and appointed Washington as its commander-in-chief. However, it suffered significantly from the lack of an effective training program and from largely inexperienced officers. Ferling 2007, pp. 286–287
Each state legislature appointed officers for both county and state militias and their regimental Continental line officers; although Washington was required to accept Congressional appointments, he was permitted to choose and command his own generals, such as Greene; his chief of artillery, Knox; and Alexander Hamilton, the chief of staff.#higginbotham1987, Higginbotham 1987, Chap. 3 One of Washington's most successful general officer recruits was Steuben, a veteran of the Prussian general staff who wrote the Revolutionary War Drill Manual. The development of the Continental Army was always a work in progress and Washington used both his regulars and state militias throughout the war; when properly employed, the combination allowed them to overwhelm smaller British forces, as they did in battles at Concord, Boston, Bennington, and Saratoga. Both sides used partisan warfare, but the state militias effectively suppressed Loyalist activity when British regulars were not in the area.

Washington designed the overall military strategy in cooperation with Congress, established the principle of civilian supremacy in military affairs, personally recruited his senior officer corps, and kept the states focused on a common goal.#lengel2005, Lengel 2005, pp. 365–371 Washington initially employed the inexperienced officers and untrained troops in Fabian strategy, Fabian strategies rather than risk frontal assaults against Britain's professional forces.#ellis2004, Ellis 2004, pp. 92–109 Over the course of the war, Washington lost more battles than he won, but he never surrendered his troops and maintained a fighting force in the face of British field armies.#alexrose, Rose, A. 2014 006 pp. 258–261

By prevailing European standards, the armies in America were relatively small, limited by lack of supplies and logistics. The British were constrained by the logistical difficulty of transporting troops across the Atlantic and their dependence on local supplies. Washington never directly commanded more than 17,000 men,#boatner74, Boatner 1974, p. 264 and the combined Franco-American army in the decisive American victory at Battle of Yorktown, Yorktown was only about 19,000.#duffy1987, Duffy 2005 [1987], p. 13 At the beginning of 1776, Patriot forces consisted of 20,000 men, with two-thirds in the Continental Army and the other third in the state militias. About 250,000 American men served as regulars or as militia for the revolutionary cause during the war, but there were never more than 90,000 men under arms at any time.#crocker, Crocker 2006, p. 51

On the whole, American officers never equaled their British opponents in tactics and maneuvers, and they lost most of the pitched battles. The great successes at Boston (1776), Saratoga (1777), and Siege of Yorktown, Yorktown (1781) were won by trapping the British far from base with a greater number of troops. After 1778, Washington's army was transformed into a more disciplined and effective force, mostly as a product of Baron von Steuben's military training. Immediately after the Continental Army emerged from Valley Forge in June 1778, it proved its ability to match the military capabilities of the British at the Battle of Monmouth, including a Black Colony of Rhode Island and Providence Plantations, Rhode Island regiment fending off a British bayonet attack and then counter charging the British for the first time as part of Washington's army. Ferling 2007, pp. 294–295 After the Battle of Monmouth, Washington came to realize that saving entire towns was not necessary, but preserving his army and keeping the revolutionary spirit alive was more important. Washington informed Henry Laurens, then president of the Second Continental Congress, "that the possession of our towns, while we have an army in the field, will avail them little."#chernow2010, Chernow, 2010, p. 344

Although the Continental Congress was responsible for the war effort and provided supplies to the troops, Washington took it upon himself to pressure Congress and the state legislatures to provide the essentials of war; there was never nearly enough.#carp1990, Carp 1990, p. 220 Congress evolved in its committee oversight and established the Board of War, which included members of the military.#harwell2011, Freeman and Harwell (ed.), p. 42 Because the Board of War was also a committee ensnared with its own internal procedures, Congress also created the post of United States Secretary of War, Secretary of War, appointing Major General Benjamin Lincoln to the position in February 1781. Washington worked closely with Lincoln to coordinate civilian and military authorities and took charge of training and supplying the army.#bell2005, Bell 2005, pp. 3–4"

Continental Navy

During the first summer of the war, Washington began outfitting schooners and other small seagoing vessels to prey on ships supplying the British in Boston. Ferling 2007, p. 360 The Second Continental Congress established the Continental Navy on October 13, 1775, and appointed Esek Hopkins as its first commander;#miller1997, Miller 1997 [1977], pp. 11–12, 16 for most of the war, the Continental Navy included only a handful of small frigates and sloops, supported by privateers.#higginbotham1987, Higginbotham 1987 [1971], pp. 331–346 On November 10, 1775, Congress authorized the creation of the Continental Marines, which ultimately evolved into the United States Marine Corps.

John Paul Jones became the first American naval hero when he captured HMS Drake (1777), HMS ''Drake'' on April 24, 1778, the first victory for any American military vessel in British waters.#higginbotham1983, Higginbotham 1983 [1971], pp. 331–346 The last such victory was by the frigate USS Alliance (1778), USS ''Alliance'', commanded by Captain John Barry (naval officer), John Barry. On March 10, 1783, the ''Alliance'' outgunned HMS ''Sybil'' in a 45-minute duel while escorting Spanish gold from Havana to the Congress in Philadelphia.#thomas2017, Thomas 2017, "Last Naval Battle" After Yorktown, all US Navy ships were sold or given away; it was the first time in America's history that it had no fighting forces on the high seas.#daughan2011, Daughan 2011 [2008], p. 240

Congress primarily commissioned privateers to reduce costs and to take advantage of the large proportion of colonial sailors found in the British Empire. In total, they included 1,700 ships that successfully captured 2,283 enemy ships to damage the British effort and to enrich themselves with the proceeds from the sale of cargo and the ship itself., "Privateers" About 55,000 sailors served aboard American privateers during the war.

France

At the beginning of the war, the Americans had no major international allies, since most nation-states waited to see how the conflict unfolded. Over time, the Continental Army established its military credibility. Battles such as the Battle of Bennington, the Battles of Saratoga, and even defeats such as the Battle of Germantown, proved decisive in gaining the support of powerful European nations, including France, Spain, and the Fourth Anglo-Dutch War#Background, Dutch Republic; the Dutch moved from covertly supplying the Americans with weapons and supplies to overtly supporting them.#trevelyan1912a, Trevelyan 1912a, p. 249

The decisive American victory at Saratoga convinced France in the American Revolutionary War, France, which was already a long-time rival of Britain, to offer the Americans the Treaty of Amity and Commerce. The two nations also agreed to a defensive Treaty of Alliance to protect their trade and also guaranteed American independence from Britain. To engage the United States as a French ally militarily, the treaty was conditioned on Britain initiating a war on France to stop it from trading with the U.S. Spain and the Dutch Republic were invited to join by both France and the United States in the treaty, but neither was responsive to the request. Morgan 2012 [1956], pp. 82–83

On June 13, 1778, France declared war on Great Britain, and it invoked the French military alliance with the U.S., which ensured additional U.S. private support for French possessions in the Caribbean. Washington worked closely with the soldiers and navy that France would send to America, primarily through Lafayette on his staff. French assistance made critical contributions required to defeat Cornwallis at Yorktown in 1781.#davis75, Davis 1975, pp. 203, 303, 391

British strategy

The British military had considerable experience fighting in North America.#cave2004, Cave 2004, pp. 21–22 However, in previous conflicts they benefited from local logistics and support from the colonial militia. In the American Revolutionary War, reinforcements had to come from Europe, and maintaining large armies over such distances was extremely complex; ships could take three months to cross the Atlantic, and orders from London were often outdated by the time they arrived. Greene & Pole 2008, pp. 298, 306

Prior to the conflict, the colonies were largely autonomous economic and political entities, with no centralized area of ultimate strategic importance.#rosssman2016, Rossman 2016, p. 2 This meant that, unlike Europe where the fall of a capital city often ended wars, that in America continued even after the loss of major settlements such as Philadelphia, the seat of Congress, New York, and Charleston.#curtis1926, Curtis 1926, pp. 148–149 British power was reliant on the Royal Navy, whose dominance allowed them to resupply their own expeditionary forces while preventing access to enemy ports. However, the majority of the American population was agrarian, rather than urban; supported by the French navy and blockade runners based in the Dutch Caribbean, their economy was able to survive. Greene & Pole 2008, pp. 42, 48
Frederick North, 2nd Earl of Guilford, Lord North, Prime Minister since 1770, delegated control of the war in North America to Lord George Germain and the John Montagu, 4th Earl of Sandwich, Earl of Sandwich, who was First Lord of the Admiralty, head of the Royal Navy from 1771 to 1782. Defeat at Saratoga in 1777 made it clear the revolt would not be easily suppressed, especially after the Franco-American alliance of February 1778. With Spain also expected to join the conflict, the Royal Navy needed to prioritize either the war in America or in Europe; Germain advocated the former, Sandwich the latter.#syrett1998, Syrett 1998, pp. 18–22

North initially backed the Southern strategy attempting to exploit divisions between the mercantile north and slave-owning south, but after the defeat of Yorktown, he was forced to accept that this policy had failed.#hibbert, Hibbert 2008, p. 333 It was clear the war was lost, although the Royal Navy forced the French to relocate their fleet to the Caribbean in November 1781 and resumed a close blockade of American trade.#davisengerman2006, Davis, L. and Engerman 2006, p. 64 The resulting economic damage and rising inflation meant the US was now eager to end the war, while France was unable to provide further loans; Congress could no longer pay its soldiers.#Rappleye2010, Rappleye 2010, pp. 300–313
The geographical size of the colonies and limited manpower meant the British could not simultaneously conduct military operations and occupy territory without local support. Debate persists over whether their defeat was inevitable; one British statesman described it as "like trying to conquer a map".#curtis1926, Curtis 1926, p. 148 While John E. Ferling, Ferling argues Patriot victory was nothing short of a miracle, Ferling 2007, pp. 562–577 Joseph Ellis, Ellis suggests the odds always favored the Americans, especially after Howe squandered the chance of a decisive British success in 1776, an "opportunity that would never come again".#ellis2013, Ellis 2013, p. xi The US military history speculates the additional commitment of 10,000 fresh troops in 1780 would have placed British victory "within the realm of possibility".#stewartR, Stewart, R. 2005, vol. 4, p. 103

British Army

The expulsion of France from North America in 1763 led to a drastic reduction in British troop levels in the colonies; in 1775, there were only 8,500 regular soldiers among a civilian population of 2.8 million.#clode1869a, Clode 1869, Vol. 1, p. 268 The bulk of military resources in the Americas were focused on defending sugar islands in the Caribbean; Colony of Jamaica, Jamaica alone generated more revenue than all thirteen American colonies combined.#billias1969, Billias 1969, p. 83 With the end of the Seven Years' War, the permanent army in Britain was also cut back, which resulted in administrative difficulties when the war began a decade later.#clayton2014, Clayton 2014, p. 65

Over the course of the war, there were four separate British commanders-in-chief. The first was Thomas Gage, appointed in 1763, whose initial focus was establishing British rule in former French areas of Canada. Many in London blamed the revolt on his failure to take firm action earlier, and he was relieved after the heavy losses incurred at the Battle of Bunker Hill.#nessy, O'Shaunessy 2013, p. 86 His replacement was Sir William Howe, a member of the Whig faction in Parliament who opposed the policy of coercion advocated by Lord North; Cornwallis, who later surrendered at Yorktown, was one of many senior officers who initially refused to serve in North America.#ketchum97, Ketchum 1997, p. 76

The 1775 campaign showed the British overestimated the capabilities of their own troops and underestimated the colonial militia, requiring a reassessment of tactics and strategy, Ketchum 2014a, p. 208 and allowing the Patriots to take the initiative.#miller1959, Miller 1959, pp. 410–412 Howe's responsibility is still debated; despite receiving large numbers of reinforcements, Bunker Hill seems to have permanently affected his self-confidence and lack of tactical flexibility meant he often failed to follow up opportunities.#fleming2006, Fleming 2006, p. 44 Many of his decisions were attributed to supply problems, such as his failure to pursue Washington's beaten army.#daviesk1972, Davies, K. 1972, vol. 12 – 1776, 5:93, Howe to Germain, June 7 and July 7, 1776 Having lost the confidence of his subordinates, he was recalled after Burgoyne surrendered at Saratoga.#nessy, O'Shaunessy 2013, p. 216

Following the failure of the Carlisle Commission, British policy changed from treating the Patriots as subjects who needed to be reconciled to enemies who had to be defeated.#hibbert2000, Hibbert 2000, pp. 160–161 In 1778, Howe was replaced by Sir Henry Clinton.#nessy, O'Shaunessy 2013, p. Regarded as an expert on tactics and strategy, like his predecessors Clinton was handicapped by chronic supply issues.#daviesk1972, Davies, K. 1972, vol. 15 – 1778, 5:96, Clinton to Germain, September 15, 1778 In addition, Clinton's strategy was compromised by conflict with political superiors in London and his colleagues in North America, especially Admiral Mariot Arbuthnot, replaced in early 1781 by Rodney. He was neither notified nor consulted when Germain approved Cornwallis's invasion of the south in 1781 and delayed sending him reinforcements believing the bulk of Washington's army was still outside New York City.#ketchum2014b, Ketchum 2014b, pp. 208–210 After the surrender at Yorktown, Clinton was relieved by Carleton, whose major task was to oversee the evacuation of Loyalists and British troops from Savannah, Charleston, and New York City.#cashin, Cashin 2005, "Revolutionary War in Georgia"

German troops

During the 18th century, states commonly Soldatenhandel, hired foreign soldiers, including Britain.#baer2015, Baer 2015, p. 115 When it became clear additional troops were needed to suppress the revolt in America, it was decided to employ Germans in the American Revolution#Allies of Great Britain, professional German soldiers. There were several reasons for this, including public sympathy for the Patriot cause, a historical reluctance to expand the British army and the time needed to recruit and train new regiments.#baer2015, Baer 2015, p. 117 Many smaller states in the Holy Roman Empire had a long tradition of renting their armies to the highest bidder. The most important was Landgraviate of Hesse-Kassel, Hesse-Kassel, known as "the Mercenary State".#showalter2007, Showalter 2007, "Best armies money could buy"

The first supply agreements were signed by the North administration in late 1775; 30,000 Germans served in the American War.#baer2015, Baer 2015, pp. 111–112 Often generically referred to as "Hessians", they included men from many other states, including Electorate of Brunswick-Lüneburg, Hanover and Brunswick.#fetter1980, Fetter 1980, p. 508 Sir Henry Clinton recommended recruiting Russian troops whom he rated very highly, having seen them in action against the Russo-Turkish War (1768–1774), Ottomans; however, negotiations with Catherine the Great made little progress.#baer2015, Baer 2015, pp. 118–119

Unlike previous wars their use led to intense political debate in Britain, France, and even Germany, where Frederick the Great refused to provide passage through his territories for troops hired for the American war.#schmidt1958, Schmidt 1958, pp. 208–209 In March 1776, the agreements were challenged in Parliament by Whigs who objected to "coercion" in general, and the use of foreign soldiers to subdue "British subjects".#baer2015, Baer 2015, pp. 121, 141–142 The debates were covered in detail by American newspapers; in May 1776 they received copies of the treaties themselves, provided by British sympathizers and smuggled into North America from London.#baer2015, Baer 2015, pp. 143–144

The prospect of foreign German soldiers being used in the colonies bolstered support for independence, more so than taxation and other acts combined; the King was accused of declaring war on his own subjects, leading to the idea there were now two separate governments.#baer2015, Baer 2015, pp. 136–143#oshaughnessy2004, O'Saughnessy, 2004, p. 20 By apparently showing Britain was determined to go to war, it made hopes of reconciliation seem naive and hopeless, while the employment of what was regarded as "foreign mercenaries" became one of the charges levelled against George III in the Declaration of Independence. The Hessian reputation within Germany for brutality also increased support for the Patriot cause among German American immigrants.#baer2015, Baer 2015, p. 142

The presence of over 150,000 German Americans meant both sides felt the German soldiers might be persuaded to desert; one reason Clinton suggested employing Russians was that he felt they were less likely to defect. When the first German troops arrived on Staten Island in August 1776, Congress approved the printing of handbills, promising land and citizenship to any willing to join the Patriot cause. The British launched a counter-campaign claiming deserters could be executed.#mauch2003, Mauch 2003, p. 415 Desertion among the Germans occurred throughout the war, with the highest rate of desertion occurring between the surrender at Yorktown and the Treaty of Paris.#atwood2002, Atwood, 2002, p. 194 German regiments were central to the British war effort; of the estimated 30,000 sent to America, some 13,000 became casualties.#lowell84, Lowell 1884, pp. 20–21, 282–283

Revolution as civil war

Loyalists

Wealthy Loyalists convinced the British government that most of the colonists were sympathetic toward the Crown;#ritcheson, Ritcheson 1973, p. 6 consequently, British military planners relied on recruiting Loyalists, but had trouble recruiting sufficient numbers as the Patriots had widespread support. Approximately 25,000 Loyalists fought for the British throughout the war. Although Loyalists constituted about twenty percent of the colonial population, they were concentrated in distinct communities. Many of them lived among large plantation owners in the Tidewater (region), Tidewater region and South Carolina in the American Revolution#Early conflicts, South Carolina.

When the British began probing the backcountry in 1777–1778, they were faced with a major problem: any significant level of organized Loyalist activity required a continued presence of British regulars.#black2001, Black 2001 [1991], p. 12 The available manpower that the British had in America was insufficient to protect Loyalist territory and counter American offensives.#black2001, Black 2001 [1991], pp. 13–14 The Loyalist militias in the South were constantly defeated by neighboring Patriot militia. The Patriot victory at the Battle of Kings Mountain irreversibly impaired Loyalist militia capability in the South.

When the early war policy was administered by Howe, the Crown's need to maintain Loyalist support prevented it from using the traditional revolt suppression methods.#black2001, Black 2001 [1991], p. 14 The British cause suffered when their troops ransacked local homes during an aborted attack on Charleston in 1779 that enraged both Patriots and Loyalists. After Congress rejected the Carlisle Peace Commission in 1778 and Westminster turned to "hard war" during Clinton's command, neutral colonists in the Carolinas often allied with the Patriots.#black, Black 2001 [1991], pp. 14–16 [16], 35, 38 Conversely, Loyalists gained support when Patriots intimidated suspected Tories by destroying property or tarring and feathering.#Calhoon1973, Calhoon 1973, p.

A Loyalist militia unit—the British Legion (American Revolutionary War), British Legion—provided some of the best troops in British service.#buchanan97, Buchanan 1997, p. 327 It was commanded by Tarleton and gained a fearsome reputation in the colonies for "brutality and needless slaughter".#bass, Bass 1957, pp. 548–550

Women

Women played various roles during the Revolutionary War; they often accompanied their husbands when permitted. For example, throughout the war Martha Washington was known to visit and provide aid to her husband George at various American camps.#chernow2010, Chernow, 2010, p. 215 Women often accompanied armies as camp followers to sell goods and perform necessary tasks in hospitals and camps, and numbered in the thousands during the war.#dunkerly, Dunkerly 2014, "Camp Followers"

Women also assumed military roles: some dressed as men to directly support combat, fight, or act as spies on both sides.#howat2017, Howat 2017, "Women Spies" Anna Maria Lane joined her husband in the Army. The Virginia General Assembly later cited her bravery: she fought while dressed as a man and "performed extraordinary military services, and received a severe wound at the battle of Germantown ... with the courage of a soldier".#womens2009, Historical Essay 2009 On April 26, 1777, Sybil Ludington is said to have ridden to alert militia forces to the British's approach; she has been called the "female Paul Revere".#hunt2015, Hunt 2015, pp. 188–222 Whether the ride occurred is questioned. A few others List of wartime cross-dressers, disguised themselves as men. Deborah Sampson fought until her gender was discovered and she was discharged as a result; Sally St. Clair was killed in action.

African Americans

When war began, the population of the Thirteen Colonies included an estimated 500,000 slaves, predominantly used as labor on Plantation complexes in the Southern United States, Southern plantations.#nash2012, Nash 2012, p. 251 In November 1775, Lord Dunmore, the royal governor of Virginia, issued a proclamation that promised freedom to any Patriot-owned slaves willing to bear arms. Although the announcement helped to fill a temporary manpower shortage, white Loyalist prejudice meant recruits were eventually redirected to non-combatant roles. The Loyalists' motive was to deprive Patriot Planter class, planters of labor rather than to end slavery; Loyalist-owned slaves were returned.#nash2005, Nash, 2005, pp. 167–168

The 1779 Philipsburg Proclamation issued by Clinton extended the offer of freedom to Patriot-owned slaves throughout the colonies. It persuaded entire families to escape to British lines, many of which were employed growing food for the army by removing the requirement for military service. While Clinton organized the Black Pioneers, he also ensured fugitive slaves were returned to Loyalist owners with orders that they were not to be punished.#blackcancol, Canada' Digital Collections "Black Loyalists" As the war progressed, service as regular soldiers in British units became increasingly common; Black Loyalists formed two regiments of the Charleston garrison in 1783.#bibko2016, Bibko, 2016, pp. 68–69

Estimates of the numbers who served the British during the war vary from 25,000 to 50,000, excluding those who escaped during wartime. Thomas Jefferson estimated that Virginia may have lost 30,000 slaves to escapes.#bibko2016, Bibko, 2016, p. 59 In South Carolina, nearly 25,000 slaves (about 30 percent of the enslaved population) either fled, migrated, or died, which significantly disrupted the plantation economies both during and after the war.#kolchin1994, Kolchin 1994, p. 73

Black Patriots were barred from the Continental Army until Washington convinced Congress in January 1778 that there was no other way to replace losses from disease and desertion. The 1st Rhode Island Regiment formed in February included former slaves whose owners were compensated; however, only 140 of its 225 soldiers were Black and recruitment stopped in June 1788.#lanning2012, Lanning 2012, p. 75 Ultimately, around 5,000 African Americans served in the Continental Army and Navy in a variety of roles, while another 4,000 were employed in Patriot militia units, aboard privateers, or as teamsters, servants, and spies. After the war, a small minority received land grants or Congressional pensions; many others were returned to their masters post-war despite earlier promises of freedom.#alexander2010, Alexander 2010, p. 356

As a Patriot victory became increasingly likely, the treatment of Black Loyalists became a point of contention; after the surrender of Yorktown in 1781, Washington insisted all escapees be returned but Cornwallis refused. In 1782 and 1783, around 8,000 to 10,000 freed Blacks were evacuated by the British from Charleston, Savannah, and New York; some moved onto London, while 3,000 to 4,000 settled in Nova Scotia.#bibko2016, Bibko, 2016, p. 61 White Loyalists transported 15,000 enslaved Blacks to Jamaica and the Bahamas. The free Black Loyalists who migrated to the British West Indies included regular soldiers from Dunmore's Ethiopian Regiment, and those from Charleston who helped garrison the Leeward Islands.

Native Americans

Most Native Americans east of the Mississippi River were affected by the war, and many tribes were divided over how to respond. A few tribes were friendly with the colonists, but most Natives opposed the union of the Colonies as a potential threat to their territory. Approximately 13,000 Natives fought on the British side, with the largest group coming from the Iroquois tribes who deployed around 1,500 men. Greene & Pole 2008, p. 393

Early in July 1776, Cherokee allies of Britain attacked the short-lived Washington District, North Carolina, Washington District of North Carolina Colony, North Carolina. Their defeat splintered both Cherokee settlements and people, and was directly responsible for the rise of the Chickamauga Cherokee, who perpetuated the Cherokee–American wars against American settlers for decades after hostilities with Britain ended.#finger2001, Finger 2001, pp. 43–64

Muscogee and Seminole allies of Britain fought against Americans in Georgia and South Carolina. In 1778, a force of 800 Muscogee destroyed American settlements along the Broad River (Georgia), Broad River in Georgia. Muscogee warriors also joined Thomas Brown (loyalist), Thomas Brown's raids into South Carolina and assisted Britain during the siege of Savannah.#wardH1999, Ward, H. 1999, p. 198 Many Native Americans were involved in the fight between Britain and Spain on the Gulf Coast and along the British side of the Mississippi River. Thousands of Muscogee, Chickasaw, and Choctaw fought in major battles such as the Battle of Fort Charlotte, the Battle of Mobile (1781), Battle of Mobile, and the siege of Pensacola.#o'brien2008, O'Brien 2008, pp. 123–126

The Iroquois Confederacy was shattered as a result of the American Revolutionary War. The Seneca people, Seneca, Onondaga people, Onondaga, and Cayuga people, Cayuga tribes sided with the British; members of the Mohawk people, Mohawks fought on both sides; and many Tuscarora people, Tuscarora and Oneida people, Oneida sided with the Americans. To retaliate against raids on American settlement by Loyalists and their Indian allies, the Continental Army dispatched the Sullivan Expedition throughout New York to debilitate the Iroquois tribes that had sided with the British. Mohawk leaders Joseph Louis Cook and Joseph Brant sided with the Americans and the British respectively, which further exacerbated the split. Ferling 2007, pp. 200–203

In the western theater, conflicts between settlers and Native Americans led to lingering distrust.#reidD2017, Reid, D. 2017, p. In the 1783 Treaty of Paris, Great Britain ceded control of the disputed lands between the Great Lakes and the Ohio River, but Native inhabitants were not a part of the peace negotiations.#carroll2001, Carroll 2001, p. 24 Tribes in the Northwest Territory joined as the Western Confederacy and allied with the British to resist American settlement, and their conflict continued after the Revolutionary War as the Northwest Indian War. Ferling 2007, pp. 354–355

Peace negotiations

The terms presented by the Carlisle Peace Commission in 1778 included acceptance of the principle of self-government. Parliament would recognize Congress as the governing body, suspend any objectionable legislation, surrender its right to local colonial taxation, and discuss including American representatives in the House of Commons. In return, all property confiscated from Loyalists would be returned, British debts honored, and locally enforced martial law accepted. However, Congress demanded either immediate recognition of independence or the withdrawal of all British troops; they knew the commission were not authorized to accept these, bringing negotiations to a rapid end.#whiteley1996, Whiteley 1996, p. 175

On February 27, 1782, a Whig motion to end the offensive war in America was carried by 19 votes.#namier1985, Namier and Brooke 1985, p. 246 North resigned, obliging the king to invite Charles Watson-Wentworth, 2nd Marquess of Rockingham, Lord Rockingham to form a government; a consistent supporter of the Patriot cause, he made a commitment to U.S. independence a condition of doing so. George III reluctantly accepted and the Second Rockingham ministry, new government took office on March 27, 1782; however, Rockingham died unexpectedly on July 1, and was replaced by Shelburne ministry, Lord Shelburne who acknowledged American independence.#wardA1925, Ward and Prothero 1925, p. 458

When Lord Rockingham was elevated to Prime Minister, Congress consolidated its diplomatic consuls in Europe into a peace delegation at Paris. The dean of the delegation was Benjamin Franklin. He had become a celebrity in the French Court, but he was also influential in the courts of Kingdom of Prussia, Prussia and Habsburg monarchy, Austria. Since the 1760s, Franklin had been an organizer of British American inter-colony cooperation, and then served as a colonial lobbyist to Parliament in London. John Adams had been consul to the Dutch Republic and was a prominent early New England Patriot. John Jay of New York had been consul to Spain and was a past president of the Continental Congress. As consul to the Dutch Republic, Henry Laurens had secured a preliminary agreement for a trade agreement. Although active in the preliminaries, he was not a signer of the conclusive treaty.

The Whig negotiators included long-time friend of Franklin David Hartley (the Younger), David Hartley, and Richard Oswald (merchant), Richard Oswald, who had negotiated Laurens' release from the Tower of London. The Preliminary Peace signed on November 30 met four key Congressional demands: independence, territory up to the Mississippi, navigation rights into the Gulf of Mexico, and fishing rights in Newfoundland.

British strategy was to strengthen the U.S. sufficiently to prevent France from regaining a foothold in North America, and they had little interest in these proposals.#Black2011, Black 2011, pp. 117–118 However, divisions between their opponents allowed them to negotiate separately with each to improve their overall position, starting with the American delegation in September 1782.#Harvey2004, Harvey 2004, pp. 531–532 The French and Spanish sought to improve their position by creating the U.S. dependent on them for support against Britain, thus reversing the losses of 1763.#cogliano2003, Cogliano 2003, p. 85 Both parties tried to negotiate a settlement with Britain excluding the Americans; France proposed setting the western boundary of the U.S. along the Appalachians, matching the British 1763 Proclamation Line. The Spanish suggested additional concessions in the vital Mississippi River Basin, but required the cession of Georgia in the American Revolution, Georgia in violation of the Franco-American alliance.

Facing difficulties with Spain over claims involving the Mississippi River, and from France who was still reluctant to agree to American independence until all her demands were met, John Jay told the British that he was willing to negotiate directly with them, cutting off France and Spain, and Prime Minister Lord Shelburne, in charge of the British negotiations, agreed.#morris1965, Morris, 1983 [1965], pp. 221–323, 331–333 Key agreements for the United States in obtaining peace included recognition of US independence; all of the territory east of the Mississippi River, north of Florida and south of Canada; and fishing rights in the Grand Banks, off the coast of Newfoundland and in the Gulf of Saint Lawrence. The United States and Great Britain were each given perpetual access to the Mississippi River.#dull1975, Dull 1987 [1975], pp. 144–151#morris1965, Morris, 1983 [1965], pp. 218–221

An Anglo-American Preliminary Peace was formally entered into in November 1782, and Congress endorsed the settlement on April 15, 1783. It announced the achievement of peace with independence, and the conclusive treaty was signed on September 2, 1783, in Paris, effective the following day when Britain signed its treaty with France. John Adams, who helped draft the treaty, claimed it represented "one of the most important political events that ever happened on the globe". Ratified respectively by Congress and Parliament, the final versions were exchanged in Paris the following spring.#lskaplan1983, Kaplan, L. 1983, "Treaty of Paris" On November 25, the last British troops remaining in the U.S. were Evacuation Day (New York), evacuated from New York to Halifax.#ketchum2014b, Ketchum 2014b, p. 287

Aftermath

Territory

The expanse of territory that was now the U.S. included millions of sparsely settled acres south of the Great Lakes between the Appalachian Mountains and the Mississippi River, much of which was part of Canada. The tentative colonial migration west became a flood during the war.#herring2011, Herring 2011 [2008], p. 41

Britain's extended post-war policy for the U.S. continued to try to establish an Indian barrier state below the Great Lakes as late as 1814 during the War of 1812. The formally acquired western American lands continued to be populated by Indigenous tribes that had mostly been British allies. In practice the British refused to abandon the forts on territory they formally transferred. Instead, they provisioned military allies for continuing frontier raids and sponsored the Northwest Indian War (1785–1795). British sponsorship of local warfare on the U.S. continued until the Anglo-American Jay Treaty, authored by Hamilton, went into effect on February 29, 1796.Benn 1993, p. 17

Of the European powers with American colonies adjacent to the newly created U.S., Spain was most threatened by American independence, and it was correspondingly the most hostile to it. Its territory adjacent to the U.S. was relatively undefended, so Spanish policy developed a combination of initiatives. Spanish soft power diplomatically challenged the British territorial cession west to the Mississippi River and the previous northern boundaries of Spanish Florida.#herring2011, Herring 2011 [2008], p. 46 It imposed a high tariff on American goods, then blocked American settler access to the port of New Orleans. At the same time, the Spanish also sponsored war within the U.S. by Indian proxies in its Southwest Territory ceded by France to Britain, then Britain to the Americans.

Casualties and losses

The total loss of life throughout the conflict is largely unknown. As was typical in wars of the era, diseases such as smallpox claimed more lives than battle. Between 1775 and 1782, a 1775–82 North American smallpox epidemic, smallpox epidemic throughout North America killed an estimated 130,000. Historian Joseph Ellis suggests that Washington having his troops Variolation, inoculated against the disease was one of his most important decisions.#ellis2004, Ellis 2004, p. 87

Up to 70,000 American Patriots died during active military service.#peckham74, Peckham 1974, p. Of these, approximately 6,800 were killed in battle, while at least 17,000 died from disease. The majority of the latter died while prisoners of war of the British, mostly in the Prisoners in the American Revolutionary War, prison ships in New York Harbor.#burrows2008b, Burrows 2008b, p. 201 The number of Patriots seriously wounded or disabled by the war has been estimated from 8,500 to 25,000.#chambers1999, Chambers 1999 p. 849

The French suffered 2,112 killed in combat in the United States.#CITEREFRignault2004, Dawson 2017, "Frenchmen who died" The Spanish lost 124 killed and 247 wounded in West Florida.#white2020, White 2010, "Essay"

A British report in 1781 puts their total Army deaths at 6,046 in North America (1775–1779). Approximately 7,774 Germans died in British service in addition to 4,888 deserters; among those labeled German deserters, however, it is estimated that 1,800 were killed in combat.

Legacy

The American Revolution set an example to overthrow both monarchy and colonial governments. The United States has the world's oldest written constitution, which was used as a model in other countries, sometimes word-for-word. The Revolution inspired revolutions in France, Haiti, Latin America, and elsewhere.#bailyn2007, Bailyn, 2007, pp. 35, 134–149

Although the Revolution eliminated many forms of inequality, it did little to change the status of women, despite the role they played in winning independence. Most significantly, it failed to end slavery. While many were uneasy over the contradiction of demanding liberty for some, yet denying it to others, the dependence of southern states on slave labor made abolition too great a challenge. Between 1774 and 1780, many of the states banned the importation of slaves, but the institution itself continued.#morgan2012, Morgan, 2012 [1956], pp. 96–97 In 1782, Virginia passed a law permitting manumission and over the next eight years more than 10,000 slaves were given their freedom.#morgan2012, Morgan, 2012 [1956], p. 97 The number of abolitionist movements greatly increased, and by 1804 all the northern states had outlawed it.#wood1992, Wood, 1992, pp. 3–8, 186–187 However, slavery continued to be a serious social and political issue and caused divisions that would ultimately end in American Civil War, civil war.

Historiography

The body of historical writings on the American Revolution cite many motivations for the Patriot revolt.Paul David Nelson, "British Conduct of the American Revolutionary War: A Review of Interpretations." ''Journal of American History'' 65.3 (1978): 623–653. American Patriots stressed the denial of their constitutional rights of Englishmen, rights as Englishmen, especially "no taxation without representation." Contemporaries credit the American Enlightenment with laying the intellectual, moral, and ethical foundations for the American Revolution among the Founding Fathers of the United States, Founding Fathers, who were influenced by the classical liberalism of John Locke and other Enlightenment writers and philosophers.

''Two Treatises of Government'' has long been cited as a major influence on Revolutionary-era American thinking, but historians David Lundberg and Henry F. May contend that Locke's ''Essay Concerning Human Understanding'' was far more widely read.See David Lundberg and Henry F. May, "The Enlightened Reader in America", ''American Quarterly'', vol. 28, no. 2 (1976): 267. Historians since the 1960s have emphasized that the Patriot constitutional argument was made possible by the emergence of an American nationalism that united the Thirteen Colonies. In turn, that nationalism was rooted in a Republicanism in the United States, Republican value system that demanded consent of the governed and deeply opposed aristocracy, aristocratic control. In Britain, on the other hand, republicanism was largely a fringe ideology since it challenged the aristocratic control of the Monarchy of the United Kingdom, British monarchy and political system. Political power was not controlled by an aristocracy or nobility in the 13 colonies; instead, the colonial political system was based on the winners of free elections, which were open at the time to the majority of white men. In analysis of the Revolution, historians in recent decades have often cited three motivations behind it:Robin Winks, ed. ''Historiography'' (1999) 5:95
* The Atlantic history view places the American story in a broader context, including subsequent revolutions in France and Haiti. It tends to reintegrate the historiographies of the American Revolution and the British Empire.Eliga H. Gould, Peter S. Onuf, eds. ''Empire and Nation: The American Revolution in the Atlantic World'' (2005)
* The "new social history" approach looks at community social structure to find cleavages that were magnified into colonial cleavages.
* The ideological approach that centers on republicanism in the United States. Republicanism dictated there would be no royalty, aristocracy or national church but allowed for continuation of the British common law, which American lawyers and jurists understood and approved and used in their everyday practice. Historians have examined how the rising American legal profession adopted British common law to incorporate republicanism by selective revision of legal customs and by introducing more choices for courts.Ellen Holmes Pearson. "Revising Custom, Embracing Choice: Early American Legal Scholars and the Republicanization of the Common Law", in Gould and Onuf, eds. ''Empire and Nation: The American Revolution in the Atlantic World'' (2005) pp. 93–113Anton-Hermann Chroust, ''Rise of the Legal Profession in America'' (1965) vol. 2.

Revolutionary War commemoration stamps

After the first Postage stamps and postal history of the United States, U.S. postage stamp was issued in 1849, the United States Postal Service, U.S. Postal Service frequently issued commemorative stamps celebrating people and events of the Revolutionary War. The first such stamp was the Liberty Bell issue of 1926.

File:150th Anniversary of the Liberty Bell, 1926 Issue-2c.jpg, upright=1, The Liberty Bell stamp, issued on the 150th anniversary of American independence in 1926
File:Saratoga 1777 Oriskany 1927 Issue-2c.jpg, upright=1, 150th anniversary of the Battles of Saratoga stamp featuring John Burgoyne, Burgoyne's surrender, issued in 1927
File:Washington at Prayer Valley Forge 1928 Issue-2c.jpg, upright=1, George Washington, Washington at prayer at Valley Forge stamp, issued in 1928
File:Yorktown 1931 Issue-2c.jpg, upright=1, 150th anniversary of the siege of Yorktown stamp featuring Jean-Baptiste Donatien de Vimeur, comte de Rochambeau, Rochambeau, George Washington, Washington, and François Joseph Paul de Grasse, de Grasse, issued in 1931

See also

* 1776 in the United States: events, births, deaths, and other years
* Timeline of the American Revolution

Topics of the Revolution

* Committee of safety (American Revolution)
* Diplomacy in the American Revolutionary War
* Financial costs of the American Revolutionary War
* Flags of the American Revolution
* Naval operations in the American Revolutionary War

Social history of the Revolution

* Black Patriot
* Christianity in the United States#American Revolution
* The Colored Patriots of the American Revolution
* History of Poles in the United States#American Revolution
* List of clergy in the American Revolution
* List of Patriots (American Revolution)
* Quakers in the American Revolution
* Scotch-Irish Americans#American Revolution

Others in the American Revolution

* Nova Scotia in the American Revolution
* Watauga Association

Lists of Revolutionary military

* List of American Revolutionary War battles
* List of British Forces in the American Revolutionary War
* List of Continental Forces in the American Revolutionary War
* List of infantry weapons in the American Revolution
* List of United States militia units in the American Revolutionary War

Legacy and related

* American Revolution Statuary
* Commemoration of the American Revolution
* Founders Online
* Independence Day (United States)
* The Last Men of the Revolution
* List of plays and films about the American Revolution
* Museum of the American Revolution
* Tomb of the Unknown Soldier of the American Revolution
* List of wars of independence
* Bibliography of the American Revolutionary War

Notes

Citations

:''Year dates enclosed in [brackets] denote year of original printing''

Bibliography

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* – Highly regarded examination of British strategy and leadership. An introduction by John W. Shy with his biographical sketch of Mackesy.
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* Canada's Digital Collections Program
* History.org
* Maryland State House
* The History Place
* Totallyhistory.com
* U.S. Merchant Marine
* U.S. National Archives
* Valley Forge National Historic Park
* Yale Law School, Massachusetts Act

Further reading

* Allison, David, and Larrie D. Ferreiro, eds. ''The American Revolution: A World War'' (Smithsonian, 2018
excerpt
* Bobrick, Benson. ''Angel in the Whirlwind: The Triumph of the American Revolution''. Penguin, 1998 (paperback reprint)
* H. W. Brands, Brands, H. W. ''Our First Civil War: Patriots and Loyalists in the American Revolution''. New York: Anchor Books 2022.
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* Chartrand, Rene. ''The French Army in the American War of Independence'' (1994). Short (48 pp), very well illustrated descriptions.
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* Henry Steele Commager, Commager, Henry Steele and Richard B. Morris, eds. ''The Spirit of 'Seventy-Six': The Story of the American Revolution as told by Participants''. (Indianapolis: Bobbs-Merrill, 1958)
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* Eric Foner, Foner, Eric, "Whose Revolution?: The history of the United States' founding from below" (review of Woody Holton, ''Liberty Is Sweet: The Hidden History of the American Revolution'', Simon & Schuster, 2021, 800 pp.), ''The Nation'', vol. 314, no. 8 (18–25 April 2022), pp. 32–37. Highlighted are the struggles and tragic fates of America's Indians and Black slaves. For example, "In 1779 [George] Washington dispatched a contingent of soldiers to upstate New York to burn Indian towns and crops and seize hostages 'of every age and sex.' The following year, while serving as governor of Virginia, [Thomas] Jefferson ordered troops under the command of George Rogers Clark to enter the Ohio Valley and bring about the expulsion or 'extermination' of local Indians." (pp. 34–35.)
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* Kwasny, Mark V. ''Washington's Partisan War, 1775–1783''. Kent, Ohio: 1996. . Militia warfare.
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* May, Robin. ''The British Army in North America 1775–1783'' (1993). Short (48pp), very well illustrated descriptions.
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* Neimeyer, Charles Patrick. ''America Goes to War: A Social History of the Continental Army'' (1995)
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* Stoker, Donald, Kenneth J. Hagan, and Michael T. McMaster, eds. ''Strategy in the American War of Independence: a global approach'' (Routledge, 2009
excerpt

* Symonds, Craig L. ''A Battlefield Atlas of the American Revolution'' (1989), newly drawn maps emphasizing the movement of military units
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* U.S. Army

''American Military History'' Volume I, 2005.
* U.S. National Park Service
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* Zlatich, Marko; Copeland, Peter. ''General Washington's Army (1): 1775–78'' (1994). Short (48pp), very well illustrated descriptions.
* ——. ''General Washington's Army (2): 1779–83'' (1994). Short (48pp), very well illustrated descriptions.

External links

"The American Revolutionary War"
at United States Military Academy. .

Library of Congress Guide to the American Revolution


compiled by the United States Army Center of Military History (archived)

{{Authority control

American Revolutionary War,
Conflicts in 1775
Conflicts in 1776
Conflicts in 1777
Conflicts in 1778
Conflicts in 1779
Conflicts in 1780
Conflicts in 1781
Conflicts in 1782
Conflicts in 1783
Civil wars in the United States
Rebellions against the British Empire
Wars between the United Kingdom and the United States
Wars of independence