''Amaranthus'' is a
cosmopolitan genus
Genus ( plural genera ) is a taxonomic rank used in the biological classification of living and fossil organisms as well as viruses. In the hierarchy of biological classification, genus comes above species and below family. In binomial n ...
of
annual or short-lived
perennial plant
A perennial plant or simply perennial is a plant that lives more than two years. The term ('' per-'' + '' -ennial'', "through the years") is often used to differentiate a plant from shorter-lived annuals and biennials. The term is also wide ...
s collectively known as amaranths. Some amaranth species are cultivated as
leaf vegetable
Leaf vegetables, also called leafy greens, pot herbs, vegetable greens, or simply greens, are plant leaves eaten as a vegetable, sometimes accompanied by tender petioles and shoots. Leaf vegetables eaten raw in a salad can be called salad ...
s,
pseudocereals, and
ornamental plants.
Catkin
A catkin or ament is a slim, cylindrical flower cluster (a spike), with inconspicuous or no petals, usually wind- pollinated ( anemophilous) but sometimes insect-pollinated (as in '' Salix''). They contain many, usually unisexual flowers, arra ...
-like
cymes of densely packed flowers grow in summer or autumn. Amaranth varies in flower, leaf, and stem color with a range of striking
pigments from the spectrum of maroon to crimson and can grow longitudinally from tall with a cylindrical,
succulent, fibrous stem that is hollow with grooves and
bracteoles when mature.
[
There are approximately 75 species in the genus, 10 of which are ]dioecious
Dioecy (; ; adj. dioecious , ) is a characteristic of a species, meaning that it has distinct individual organisms (unisexual) that produce male or female gametes, either directly (in animals) or indirectly (in seed plants). Dioecious reproducti ...
and native to North America with the remaining 65 monoecious species endemic
Endemism is the state of a species being found in a single defined geographic location, such as an island, state, nation, country or other defined zone; organisms that are indigenous to a place are not endemic to it if they are also found els ...
to every continent (except Antarctica) from tropical lowlands to the Himalayas. Members of this genus share many characteristics and uses with members of the closely related genus '' Celosia''. Amaranth grain
Species belonging to the genus ''Amaranthus'' have been cultivated for their grains for 8,000 years. Amaranth plants are classified as pseudocereals that are grown for their edible starchy seeds, but they are not in the same botanical family ...
is collected from the genus. The leaves of some species are also eaten.
Description
Amaranth is a herbaceous plant
Herbaceous plants are vascular plants that have no persistent woody stems above ground. This broad category of plants includes many perennials, and nearly all annuals and biennials.
Definitions of "herb" and "herbaceous"
The fourth edition ...
or shrub that is either annual or perennial across the genus. Flowers vary interspecifically from the presence of 3 or 5 tepals and stamen
The stamen (plural ''stamina'' or ''stamens'') is the pollen-producing reproductive organ of a flower. Collectively the stamens form the androecium., p. 10
Morphology and terminology
A stamen typically consists of a stalk called the filam ...
s, whereas a 7- porate pollen grain structure remains consistent across the family.[ Species across the genus contain concentric rings of vascular bundles, and fix carbon efficiently with a ]C4 photosynthetic
carbon fixation or the Hatch–Slack pathway is one of three known photosynthetic processes of carbon fixation in plants. It owes the names to the 1960's discovery by Marshall Davidson Hatch and Charles Roger Slack that some plants, when supp ...
pathway.[ Leaves are approximately and of oval or elliptical shape that are either opposite or alternate across species, although most leaves are whole and simple with entire margins.][
Amaranth has a primary root with deeper spreading secondary fibrous root structures.] Inflorescence
An inflorescence is a group or cluster of flowers arranged on a stem that is composed of a main branch or a complicated arrangement of branches. Morphologically, it is the modified part of the shoot of seed plants where flowers are formed ...
s are in the form a large panicle
A panicle is a much-branched inflorescence. (softcover ). Some authors distinguish it from a compound spike inflorescence, by requiring that the flowers (and fruit
In botany, a fruit is the seed-bearing structure in flowering plants that is ...
that varies from terminal to axial, color, and sex. The tassel of fluorescence is either erect or bent and varies in width and length between species. Flowers are radially symmetric and either bisexual or unisexual with very small, bristly perianth and pointy bracts. Species in this genus are either monecious
Plant reproductive morphology is the study of the physical form and structure (the morphology) of those parts of plants directly or indirectly concerned with sexual reproduction.
Among all living organisms, flowers, which are the reproductive st ...
(e.g. '' A. hybridus,'') or dioecious
Dioecy (; ; adj. dioecious , ) is a characteristic of a species, meaning that it has distinct individual organisms (unisexual) that produce male or female gametes, either directly (in animals) or indirectly (in seed plants). Dioecious reproducti ...
(e.g. '' A. palmeri''). Fruits are in the form of capsules referred to as a '' unilocular pixdio'' that opens at maturity. The top ( operculum) of the unilocular pixdio releases the urn that contains the seed. Seeds are circular form from 1 to 1.5 millimeters in diameter and range in color with a shiny, smooth seed coat. The panicle is harvested 200 days after cultivation with approximately 1,000 to 3,000 seeds harvested per gram.
Chemistry
Amaranth grain contains phytochemicals that are not defined as nutrients and may be antinutrient factors, such as polyphenols, saponins, tannins, and oxalates. These compounds are reduced in content and antinutrient effect by cooking.
Taxonomy
''Amaranthus'' shows a wide variety of morphological diversity among and even within certain species. ''Amaranthus'' is part of the Amaranthaceae that is part of the larger grouping of the Carophyllales.[ Although the family (]Amaranthaceae
Amaranthaceae is a family of flowering plants commonly known as the amaranth family, in reference to its type genus '' Amaranthus''. It includes the former goosefoot family Chenopodiaceae and contains about 165 genera and 2,040 species, making i ...
) is distinctive, the genus
Genus ( plural genera ) is a taxonomic rank used in the biological classification of living and fossil organisms as well as viruses. In the hierarchy of biological classification, genus comes above species and below family. In binomial n ...
has few distinguishing characters among the 75 species present across six continents.[ This complicates taxonomy and ''Amaranthus'' has generally been considered among systematists as a "difficult" genus and hybridize often.]
In 1955, Sauer classified the genus into two subgenera, differentiating only between monoecious and dioecious species: ''Acnida'' (L.) Aellen ex K.R. Robertson and ''Amaranthus''. Although this classification was widely accepted, further infrageneric classification was (and still is) needed to differentiate this widely diverse group. Mosyakin and Robertson 1996 later divided into three subgenera: Acnida, Amaranthus, and Albersia. The support for the addition of the subdivision Albersia because of its indehiscent fruits coupled with three elliptic to linear tepals to be exclusive characters to members of this subgenus. The classification of these groups are further supported with a combination of floral characters, reproductive strategies, geographic distribution, and molecular evidence.
The phylogenies of ''Amaranthus'' using maximum parsimony and Bayesian analysis of nuclear
Nuclear may refer to:
Physics
Relating to the nucleus of the atom:
*Nuclear engineering
*Nuclear physics
*Nuclear power
*Nuclear reactor
*Nuclear weapon
*Nuclear medicine
*Radiation therapy
*Nuclear warfare
Mathematics
*Nuclear space
* Nuclear ...
and chloroplast
A chloroplast () is a type of membrane-bound organelle known as a plastid that conducts photosynthesis mostly in plant and algal cells. The photosynthetic pigment chlorophyll captures the energy from sunlight, converts it, and stores it ...
gene
In biology, the word gene (from , ; "... Wilhelm Johannsen coined the word gene to describe the Mendelian units of heredity..." meaning ''generation'' or ''birth'' or ''gender'') can have several different meanings. The Mendelian gene is a b ...
s suggest five clades within the genus: Diecious / Pumilus, Hybris, Galapagos, Eurasian/ South African, Australian (ESA), ESA + South American.[
''Amaranthus'' includes three recognised subgenera and 75 species, although species numbers are questionable due to hybridisation and species concepts.][ Infrageneric classification focuses on inflorescence, flower characters and whether a species is monoecious/dioecious, as in the Sauer (1955) suggested classification.][ Bracteole morphology present on the stem is used for taxonomic classification of Amaranth. Wild species have longer bracteoles compared to cultivated species.] A modified infrageneric classification of ''Amaranthus'' includes three subgenera: '' Acnida'', ''Amaranthus'', and ''Albersia'', with the taxonomy further differentiated by sections within each of the subgenera.
There is near certainty that '' A. hypochondriacus'' is the common ancestor to the cultivated grain species, however the later series of domestication to follow remains unclear. There has been opposing hypotheses of a single as opposed to multiple domestication events of the three grain species. There is evidence of phylogenetic and geographical support for clear groupings that indicate separate domestication events in South America and Central America.[ ''A. hybridus'' may derive from South America, whereas ''A. caudatus'', ''A. hypochondriacus'', and ''A. quentiensis'' are native to Central and North America.][
]
Species
Species include:
* '' Amaranthus acanthochiton'' – greenstripe
* ''Amaranthus acutilobus'' – a synonym of '' Amaranthus viridis''[
* '']Amaranthus albus
''Amaranthus albus'' is an annual species of flowering plant. It is native to the tropical Americas but a widespread introduced species in other places, including Europe, Africa, and Australia.
Common names include common tumbleweed, tumble p ...
'' – white pigweed, tumble pigweed
* ''Amaranthus anderssonii
''Amaranthus anderssonii'' is a species of plant in the family Amaranthaceae. It is endemic to Ecuador
Ecuador ( ; ; Quechua: ''Ikwayur''; Shuar: ''Ecuador'' or ''Ekuatur''), officially the Republic of Ecuador ( es, República del Ecuado ...
''
* ''Amaranthus arenicola
''Amaranthus arenicola'', commonly called sand amaranth or sandhill amaranth, is a plant species found in many states of the contiguous United States. It is an dioecious annual species found in sandy areas, near riverbeds, lakes, and fields. It i ...
'' – sandhill amaranth
* '' Amaranthus australis'' – southern amaranth
* '' Amaranthus bigelovii'' – Bigelow's amaranth
* '' Amaranthus blitoides'' – mat amaranth, prostrate amaranth, prostrate pigweed
* '' Amaranthus blitum'' – purple amaranth
* '' Amaranthus brownii'' – Brown's amaranth
* '' Amaranthus californicus'' – California amaranth, California pigweed
* '' Amaranthus cannabinus'' – tidal-marsh amaranth
* '' Amaranthus caudatus'' – love-lies-bleeding, pendant amaranth, tassel flower, ''quilete''
* '' Amaranthus chihuahuensis'' – Chihuahuan amaranth
* ''Amaranthus crassipes
''Amaranthus crassipes'', also known as spreading amaranth, is a glabrous annual plant that is both native and introduced in the United States. In the U.S., it is found in New Mexico, Arizona, Texas, Alabama, South Carolina, and Louisiana. It i ...
'' – spreading amaranth
* '' Amaranthus crispus'' – crispleaf amaranth
* '' Amaranthus cruentus'' – purple amaranth, red amaranth, Mexican grain amaranth
* '' Amaranthus deflexus'' – large-fruit amaranth
* ''Amaranthus dubius
''Amaranthus dubius'', the red spinach, Chinese spinach, (), spleen amaranth, hon-toi-moi, yin choy, hsien tsai, or Arai keerai () is a plant species. It belongs to the economically important family Amaranthaceae.
This plant is native to South ...
'' – spleen amaranth, ''khada sag''
* '' Amaranthus fimbriatus'' – fringed amaranth, fringed pigweed
* '' Amaranthus floridanus'' – Florida amaranth
* '' Amaranthus furcatus''
* '' Amaranthus graecizans''
* ''Amaranthus grandiflorus
''Amaranthus grandiflorus'' is a species of ''Amaranthus'' found in Australia.
Description
''Amaranthus grandiflorus'' is an annual plant, reaching up to tall. The leaves are ovate to lanceolate, and up to , with an acute tip. The flowers are c ...
''
* ''Amaranthus greggii
''Amaranthus greggii'', also known as Gregg's amaranth or Josiah amaranth, is a glabrous annual flowering plant native to Texas, Louisiana, and Mexico. The plant can grow up to 1 m (3 ft) in height. It is found in sand dunes and near ...
'' – Gregg's amaranth
* '' Amaranthus hybridus'' – smooth amaranth, smooth pigweed, red amaranth
* '' Amaranthus hypochondriacus'' – Prince-of-Wales feather, prince's feather
* ''Amaranthus interruptus
''Amaranthus'' is a cosmopolitan genus of annual or short-lived perennial plants collectively known as amaranths. Some amaranth species are cultivated as leaf vegetables, pseudocereals, and ornamental plants. Catkin-like cymes of densely packe ...
'' – Australian amaranth
* '' Amaranthus minimus''
* ''Amaranthus mitchellii
''Amaranthus mitchellii'' is commonly known as Mitchell's amaranth or boggabri weed. It is from the family Amaranthaceae
Amaranthaceae is a family of flowering plants commonly known as the amaranth family, in reference to its type genus ''Ama ...
''
* '' Amaranthus muricatus'' – African amaranth
* '' Amaranthus obcordatus'' – Trans-Pecos amaranth
* ''Amaranthus palmeri
''Amaranthus palmeri'' is a species of edible flowering plant in the amaranth genus. It has several common names, including carelessweed, dioecious amaranth, Palmer's amaranth, Palmer amaranth, and Palmer's pigweed.
It is native to most of the s ...
'' – Palmer's amaranth, Palmer pigweed, careless weed
* '' Amaranthus polygonoides'' – tropical amaranth
* '' Amaranthus powellii'' – green amaranth, Powell amaranth, Powell pigweed
* '' Amaranthus pringlei'' – Pringle's amaranth
* '' Amaranthus pumilus'' – seaside amaranth
* '' Amaranthus quitensis'' - Mucronate Amaranth
* '' Amaranthus retroflexus'' – red-root amaranth, redroot pigweed, common amaranth
* Amaranthus saradhiana
* ''Amaranthus scleranthoides'' – variously '' Amaranthus sclerantoides''
* '' Amaranthus scleropoides'' – bone-bract amaranth
* '' Amaranthus spinosus'' – spiny amaranth, prickly amaranth, thorny amaranth
* ''Amaranthus standleyanus
''Amaranthus'' is a cosmopolitan genus of annual or short-lived perennial plants collectively known as amaranths. Some amaranth species are cultivated as leaf vegetables, pseudocereals, and ornamental plants. Catkin-like cymes of densely packe ...
''
* '' Amaranthus thunbergii'' – Thunberg's amaranth
* '' Amaranthus torreyi'' – Torrey's amaranth
* '' Amaranthus tricolor'' – Joseph's-coat
* '' Amaranthus tuberculatus'' – rough-fruit amaranth, tall waterhemp
* '' Amaranthus viridis'' – slender amaranth, green amaranth
* '' Amaranthus watsonii'' – Watson's amaranth
* '' Amaranthus wrightii'' – Wright's amaranth
Etymology
"Amaranth" derives from Greek
Greek may refer to:
Greece
Anything of, from, or related to Greece, a country in Southern Europe:
*Greeks, an ethnic group.
*Greek language, a branch of the Indo-European language family.
**Proto-Greek language, the assumed last common ancestor ...
(), "unfading", with the Greek word for "flower", (), factoring into the word's development as ''amaranth, the unfading flower''. ''Amarant'' is an archaic variant. The name was first applied to the related '' Celosia'' (''Amaranthus'' and ''Celosia'' share long-lasting dried flowers), as ''Amaranthus'' plants were not yet known in Europe.
Ecology
Amaranth weed species have an extended period of germination, rapid growth, and high rates of seed production, and have been causing problems for farmers since the mid-1990s. This is partially due to the reduction in tillage, reduction in herbicidal use and the evolution of herbicidal resistance in several species where herbicides have been applied more often. The following 9 species of ''Amaranthus'' are considered invasive and noxious weeds in the U.S and Canada: '' A. albus'', '' A. blitoides'', '' A. hybridus'', '' A. palmeri'', '' A. powellii'', '' A. retroflexus'', '' A. spinosus'', '' A. tuberculatus'', and '' A. viridis''.
A new herbicide-resistant strain of ''A. palmeri'' has appeared; it is glyphosate-resistant and so cannot be killed by herbicides using the chemical. Also, this plant can survive in tough conditions. The species ''Amaranthus palmeri'' (Palmer amaranth) causes the greatest reduction in soybean yields and has the potential to reduce yields by 17-68% in field experiments. Palmer amaranth is among the "top five most troublesome weeds" in the southeast of the United States and has already evolved resistances to dinitroaniline herbicides and acetolactate synthase inhibitor
The acetolactate synthase (ALS) enzyme (also known as acetohydroxy acid or acetohydroxyacid synthase, abbr. AHAS) is a protein found in plants and micro-organisms. ALS catalyzes the first step in the synthesis of the branched-chain amino acids ( ...
s. This makes the proper identification of ''Amaranthus'' species at the seedling stage essential for agriculturalists. Proper weed control needs to be applied before the species successfully colonizes in the crop field and causes significant yield reductions.
An evolutionary lineage of around 90 species within the genus has acquired the carbon fixation pathway, which increases their photosynthetic efficiency. This probably occurred in the Miocene
The Miocene ( ) is the first geological epoch of the Neogene Period and extends from about (Ma). The Miocene was named by Scottish geologist Charles Lyell; the name comes from the Greek words (', "less") and (', "new") and means "less recent" ...
.
Uses
All parts of the plant are considered edible, though some may have sharp spines that need to be removed before consumption.
Nutrition
Uncooked amaranth grain
Species belonging to the genus ''Amaranthus'' have been cultivated for their grains for 8,000 years. Amaranth plants are classified as pseudocereals that are grown for their edible starchy seeds, but they are not in the same botanical family ...
by weight is 12% water, 65% carbohydrate
In organic chemistry, a carbohydrate () is a biomolecule consisting of carbon (C), hydrogen (H) and oxygen (O) atoms, usually with a hydrogen–oxygen atom ratio of 2:1 (as in water) and thus with the empirical formula (where ''m'' may or ...
s (including 7% dietary fiber), 14% protein
Proteins are large biomolecules and macromolecules that comprise one or more long chains of amino acid residues. Proteins perform a vast array of functions within organisms, including catalysing metabolic reactions, DNA replication, respon ...
, and 7% fat (table). A reference serving of uncooked amaranth grain provides of food energy, and is a rich source (20% or more of the Daily Value, DV) of protein
Proteins are large biomolecules and macromolecules that comprise one or more long chains of amino acid residues. Proteins perform a vast array of functions within organisms, including catalysing metabolic reactions, DNA replication, respon ...
, dietary fiber, pantothenic acid, vitamin B6, folate, and several dietary minerals (table). Uncooked amaranth is particularly rich in manganese
Manganese is a chemical element with the symbol Mn and atomic number 25. It is a hard, brittle, silvery metal, often found in minerals in combination with iron. Manganese is a transition metal with a multifaceted array of industrial alloy u ...
(159% DV), phosphorus (80% DV), magnesium
Magnesium is a chemical element with the symbol Mg and atomic number 12. It is a shiny gray metal having a low density, low melting point and high chemical reactivity. Like the other alkaline earth metals (group 2 of the periodic ...
(70% DV), iron
Iron () is a chemical element with symbol Fe (from la, ferrum) and atomic number 26. It is a metal that belongs to the first transition series and group 8 of the periodic table. It is, by mass, the most common element on Earth, right in ...
(59% DV), and selenium
Selenium is a chemical element with the symbol Se and atomic number 34. It is a nonmetal (more rarely considered a metalloid) with properties that are intermediate between the elements above and below in the periodic table, sulfur and telluriu ...
(34% DV). Cooking decreases its nutritional value substantially across all nutrients, with only dietary minerals remaining at moderate levels. Cooked amaranth leaves are a rich source of vitamin A
Vitamin A is a fat-soluble vitamin and an essential nutrient for humans. It is a group of organic compounds that includes retinol, retinal (also known as retinaldehyde), retinoic acid, and several provitamin A carotenoids (most notably ...
, vitamin C
Vitamin C (also known as ascorbic acid and ascorbate) is a water-soluble vitamin found in citrus and other fruits and vegetables, also sold as a dietary supplement and as a topical 'serum' ingredient to treat melasma (dark pigment spots) a ...
, calcium
Calcium is a chemical element with the symbol Ca and atomic number 20. As an alkaline earth metal, calcium is a reactive metal that forms a dark oxide-nitride layer when exposed to air. Its physical and chemical properties are most similar t ...
, and manganese, with moderate levels of folate, iron, magnesium, and potassium
Potassium is the chemical element with the symbol K (from Neo-Latin '' kalium'') and atomic number19. Potassium is a silvery-white metal that is soft enough to be cut with a knife with little force. Potassium metal reacts rapidly with atmosp ...
. Amaranth does not contain gluten.
History
The native range of the genus is cosmopolitan. In pre-Hispanic times, amaranth was cultivated by the Aztec and their tributary communities in a quantity very similar to maize. Known to the Aztecs as , amaranth is thought to have represented up to 80% of their energy consumption before the Spanish conquest. Another important use of amaranth throughout Mesoamerica
Mesoamerica is a historical region and cultural area in southern North America and most of Central America. It extends from approximately central Mexico through Belize, Guatemala, El Salvador, Honduras, Nicaragua, and northern Costa Rica. W ...
was in ritual drinks and foods. To this day, amaranth grain
Species belonging to the genus ''Amaranthus'' have been cultivated for their grains for 8,000 years. Amaranth plants are classified as pseudocereals that are grown for their edible starchy seeds, but they are not in the same botanical family ...
s are toasted much like popcorn and mixed with honey
Honey is a sweet and viscous substance made by several bees, the best-known of which are honey bees. Honey is made and stored to nourish bee colonies. Bees produce honey by gathering and then refining the sugary secretions of plants (primar ...
, molasses, or chocolate
Chocolate is a food made from roasted and ground cacao seed kernels that is available as a liquid, solid, or paste, either on its own or as a flavoring agent in other foods. Cacao has been consumed in some form since at least the Olmec civil ...
to make a treat called , meaning "joy" in Spanish.
While all species are believed to be native to the New World, several have been cultivated and introduced to warm regions worldwide. Amaranth's cosmopolitan distribution makes it one of many plants providing evidence of pre-Columbian oceanic contact. The earliest archeological evidence for amaranth in the Old World was found in an excavation in Narhan, India, dated to 1000–800 BCE.
Because of its importance as a symbol of indigenous culture, its palatability, ease of cooking, and a protein that is particularly well-suited to human nutritional needs, interest in amaranth seeds (especially ''A. cruentus'' and ''A. hypochondriacus'') revived in the 1970s. It was recovered in Mexico from wild varieties and is now commercially cultivated. It is a popular snack in Mexico, sometimes mixed with chocolate or puffed rice, and its use has spread to Europe and other parts of North America.
Seed
Several species are raised for amaranth "grain" in Asia and the Americas. Amaranth and its relative quinoa are considered pseudocereals because of their similarities to cereals in flavor and cooking. The spread of ''Amaranthus'' is of a joint effort of human expansion, adaptation, and fertilization strategies. Grain amaranth has been used for food by humans in several ways. The grain can be ground into a flour for use like other grain flours. It can be popped like popcorn, or flaked like oatmeal.
Seeds of Amaranth grain have been found in Antofagasta de la Sierra Department, Catamarca, Argentina in the southern Puna desert of the north of Argentina dating from 4,500 years ago, with evidence suggesting earlier use. Archeological evidence of seeds from ''A. hypochondriacus'' and ''A. crutenus'' found in a cave in Tehuacán, Mexico, suggests amaranth was part of Aztec civilization in the 1400s.
Ancient amaranth grains still used include the three species '' Amaranthus caudatus'', '' A. cruentus'', and ''A. hypochondriacus''. Evidence from single-nucleotide polymorphisms and chromosome structure supports ''A. hypochondriacus'' as the common ancestor of the three grain species.
It has been proposed as an inexpensive native crop that could be cultivated by indigenous people in rural areas for several reasons:
* A small amount of seed plants a large area (seeding rate 1 kg/ha).
* Yields are high compared to the seeding rate: 1,000 kg or more per hectare.
* It is easily harvested and easily processed, post harvest, as there are no hulls to remove.
* Its seeds are a source of protein.[De Macvean & Pöll (1997). Chapter 8: Ethnobotany. Tropical Tree Seed Manual, USDA Forest Service, edt. J.A Vozzo.]
* It has rich content of the dietary minerals, calcium, magnesium, phosphorus, and potassium.[
* In cooked and edible forms, amaranth retains adequate content of several dietary minerals.]
* It is easy to cook. Boil in water with twice the amount of water as grain by volume (or 2.4 times as much water by weight). Amaranth seed can also be popped one tablespoon at a time in a hot pan without oil, shaken every few seconds to avoid burning.
* It grows fast and, in three cultivated species, the large seedheads can weigh up to 1 kg and contain a half-million small seeds.
In the United States, the amaranth crop is mostly used for seed production. Most amaranth in American food products starts as a ground flour, blended with wheat or other flours to create cereals, crackers, cookies, bread or other baked products. Despite utilization studies showing that amaranth can be blended with other flours at levels above 50% without affecting functional properties or taste, most commercial products use amaranth only as a minor portion of their ingredients despite them being marketed as "amaranth" products.
Leaves, roots, and stems
Amaranth species are cultivated and consumed as a leaf vegetable
Leaf vegetables, also called leafy greens, pot herbs, vegetable greens, or simply greens, are plant leaves eaten as a vegetable, sometimes accompanied by tender petioles and shoots. Leaf vegetables eaten raw in a salad can be called salad ...
in many parts of the world. Four species of ''Amaranthus'' are documented as cultivated vegetables in eastern Asia: '' Amaranthus cruentus'', '' Amaranthus blitum, Amaranthus dubius
''Amaranthus dubius'', the red spinach, Chinese spinach, (), spleen amaranth, hon-toi-moi, yin choy, hsien tsai, or Arai keerai () is a plant species. It belongs to the economically important family Amaranthaceae.
This plant is native to South ...
'', and '' Amaranthus tricolor''.
Asia
In Indonesia and Malaysia, leaf amaranth is called (although the word has since been loaned to refer to spinach, in a different genus). In the Philippines, the Ilocano word for the plant is ; the Tagalog
Tagalog may refer to:
Language
* Tagalog language, a language spoken in the Philippines
** Old Tagalog, an archaic form of the language
** Batangas Tagalog, a dialect of the language
* Tagalog script, the writing system historically used for Tagal ...
word for the plant is or .
In Uttar Pradesh
Uttar Pradesh (; , 'Northern Province') is a state in northern India. With over 200 million inhabitants, it is the most populated state in India as well as the most populous country subdivision in the world. It was established in 1950 ...
and Bihar
Bihar (; ) is a state in eastern India. It is the 2nd largest state by population in 2019, 12th largest by area of , and 14th largest by GDP in 2021. Bihar borders Uttar Pradesh to its west, Nepal to the north, the northern part of West ...
in India, it is called ' and is a popular red leafy vegetable (referred to in the class of vegetable preparations called '). It is called ''chua'' in Kumaun area of Uttarakhand, where it is a popular red-green vegetable. In Karnataka
Karnataka (; ISO: , , also known as Karunāḍu) is a state in the southwestern region of India. It was formed on 1 November 1956, with the passage of the States Reorganisation Act. Originally known as Mysore State , it was renamed ''Kar ...
in India, it is called '' ()'' . It is used to prepare curries such as ''hulee, palya, majjigay-hulee'', and so on. In Kerala, it is called ''cheera'' and is consumed by stir-frying the leaves with spices and red chili peppers to make a dish called ''cheera thoran''. In Tamil Nadu, it is called ' and is regularly consumed as a favourite dish, where the greens are steamed and mashed with light seasoning of salt, red chili pepper, and cumin. It is called '. In the states of ''Andhra Pradesh and Telangana'' and other Telugu speaking regions of the country, this leaf is called as "''Thotakura''" and is cooked as a standalone curry, added as a part of mix leafy vegetable curry or added in preparation of a popular '' dal'' called in (Telugu
Telugu may refer to:
* Telugu language, a major Dravidian language of India
*Telugu people, an ethno-linguistic group of India
* Telugu script, used to write the Telugu language
** Telugu (Unicode block), a block of Telugu characters in Unicode
S ...
). In Maharashtra, it is called ' and is available in both red and white colour. In Orissa, it is called ', it is used to prepare ', in which the leaf is fried with chili and onions. In West Bengal
West Bengal (, Bengali: ''Poshchim Bongo'', , abbr. WB) is a state in the eastern portion of India. It is situated along the Bay of Bengal, along with a population of over 91 million inhabitants within an area of . West Bengal is the four ...
, the green variant is called '' () and the red variant is called '' ().
In China, the leaves and stems are used as a stir-fry vegetable, or in soups. In Vietnam, it is called and is used to make soup
Soup is a primarily liquid food, generally served warm or hot (but may be cool or cold), that is made by combining ingredients of meat or vegetables with stock, milk, or water. Hot soups are additionally characterized by boiling soli ...
. Two species are popular as edible vegetable in Vietnam: (''Amaranthus tricolor'') and or (''Amaranthus viridis'').
Africa
A traditional food plant in Africa, amaranth has the potential to improve nutrition, boost food security, foster rural development and support sustainable land care.
In Bantu regions of Uganda and western Kenya, it is known as ''doodo'' or ''litoto''. It is also known among the Kalenjin as a drought
A drought is defined as drier than normal conditions.Douville, H., K. Raghavan, J. Renwick, R.P. Allan, P.A. Arias, M. Barlow, R. Cerezo-Mota, A. Cherchi, T.Y. Gan, J. Gergis, D. Jiang, A. Khan, W. Pokam Mba, D. Rosenfeld, J. Tierney, an ...
crop (''chepkerta''). In Lingala
Lingala (Ngala) (Lingala: ''Lingála'') is a Bantu language spoken in the northwest of the Democratic Republic of the Congo, the northern half of the Republic of the Congo, in their capitals, Kinshasa and Brazzaville, and to a lesser degree ...
(spoken in the Congo), it is known as or . In Nigeria, it is a common vegetable and goes with all Nigerian starch dishes. It is known in Yoruba
The Yoruba people (, , ) are a West African ethnic group that mainly inhabit parts of Nigeria, Benin, and Togo. The areas of these countries primarily inhabited by Yoruba are often collectively referred to as Yorubaland. The Yoruba consti ...
as , a short form of (meaning "make the husband fat"), or (meaning "we have money left over for fish"). In Botswana, it is referred to as ''morug'' and cooked as a staple green vegetable.
Europe
In Greece, purple amaranth ('' Amaranthus Blitum'') is a popular dish called , or . It is boiled, then served with olive oil and lemon juice like a salad, sometimes alongside fried fish. Greeks stop harvesting the plant (which also grows wild) when it starts to bloom at the end of August.
Americas
In Brazil, green amaranth was, and to a degree still is, often considered an invasive species as all other species of amaranth (except the generally imported ''A. caudatus'' cultivar), though some have traditionally appreciated it as a leaf vegetable, under the names of or , which is consumed cooked, generally accompanying the staple food, rice and beans.
In the Caribbean, the leaves are called ''bhaji'' in Trinidad and ''callaloo'' in Jamaica, and are sautéed with onions, garlic, and tomatoes, or sometimes used in a soup called pepperpot soup.
Oil
Making up about 5% of the total fatty acid
In chemistry, particularly in biochemistry, a fatty acid is a carboxylic acid with an aliphatic chain, which is either saturated or unsaturated. Most naturally occurring fatty acids have an unbranched chain of an even number of carbon atoms, ...
s of amaranth, squalene is extracted as a vegetable-based alternative to the more expensive shark oil
Shark liver oil is an oil obtained from the livers of sharks. It has been used for centuries as a folk remedy to promote the healing of wounds and as a remedy for respiratory tract and digestive system problems. for use in dietary supplements and cosmetics.
Dyes
The flowers of the 'Hopi Red Dye' amaranth were used by the Hopi (a tribe in the western United States) as the source of a deep red dye. Also a synthetic dye was named " amaranth" for its similarity in color to the natural amaranth pigment
A pigment is a colored material that is completely or nearly insoluble in water. In contrast, dyes are typically soluble, at least at some stage in their use. Generally dyes are often organic compounds whereas pigments are often inorganic comp ...
s known as betalains. This synthetic dye is also known as Red No. 2 in North America and E123 in the European Union.
Ornamentals
The genus also contains several well-known ornamental plants, such as ''Amaranthus caudatus'' (love-lies-bleeding), a vigorous, hardy
Hardy may refer to:
People
* Hardy (surname)
* Hardy (given name)
* Hardy (singer), American singer-songwriter Places Antarctica
* Mount Hardy, Enderby Land
* Hardy Cove, Greenwich Island
* Hardy Rocks, Biscoe Islands
Australia
* Hardy, Sout ...
annual with dark purplish flower
A flower, sometimes known as a bloom or blossom, is the reproductive structure found in flowering plants (plants of the division Angiospermae). The biological function of a flower is to facilitate reproduction, usually by providing a mechanism ...
s crowded in handsome drooping spikes. Another Indian annual, ''A. hypochondriacus'' (prince's feather), has deeply veined, lance-shaped leaves, purple on the under face, and deep crimson flowers densely packed on erect spikes.
Amaranths are recorded as food plants for some Lepidoptera (butterfly
Butterflies are insects in the macrolepidopteran clade Rhopalocera from the order Lepidoptera, which also includes moths. Adult butterflies have large, often brightly coloured wings, and conspicuous, fluttering flight. The group comprises ...
and moth
Moths are a paraphyletic group of insects that includes all members of the order Lepidoptera that are not butterflies, with moths making up the vast majority of the order. There are thought to be approximately 160,000 species of moth, many of ...
) species including the nutmeg moth and various case-bearer moths of the genus '' Coleophora'': ''C. amaranthella'', ''C. enchorda'' (feeds exclusively on ''Amaranthus''), ''C. immortalis'' (feeds exclusively on ''Amaranthus''), ''C. lineapulvella'', and ''C. versurella'' (recorded on ''A. spinosus'').
Culture
Diego Durán described the festivities for the Aztec god . The Aztec month of (7 December to 26 December) was dedicated to . People decorated their homes and trees with paper flags; ritual races, processions, dances, songs, prayers, and finally human sacrifices were held. This was one of the more important Aztec festivals, and the people prepared for the whole month. They fasted or ate very little; a statue of the god was made out of amaranth seeds and honey, and at the end of the month, it was cut into small pieces so everybody could eat a piece of the god. After the Spanish conquest, cultivation of amaranth was outlawed, while some of the festivities were subsumed into the Christmas celebration.
Amaranth is associated with longevity and, poetically, with death and immortality. Amaranth garlands were used in the mourning of Achilles
In Greek mythology, Achilles ( ) or Achilleus ( grc-gre, Ἀχιλλεύς) was a hero of the Trojan War, the greatest of all the Greek warriors, and the central character of Homer's '' Iliad''. He was the son of the Nereid Thetis and Pe ...
.
John Milton's '' Paradise Lost'' portrays a showy amaranth in the Garden of Eden
In Abrahamic religions, the Garden of Eden ( he, גַּן־עֵדֶן, ) or Garden of God (, and גַן־אֱלֹהִים ''gan-Elohim''), also called the Terrestrial Paradise, is the Bible, biblical paradise described in Book of Genesis, Genes ...
, "remov'd from Heav'n" when it blossoms because the flowers "shade the fountain of life". He describes amaranth as "immortal" in reference to the flowers that generally do not wither and retain bright reddish tones of color, even when deceased; referred to in one species as " love-lies-bleeding."
Gallery
Amaranthus caudatus1.jpg, Love-lies-bleeding ('' A. caudatus'')
Amaranthus.hybridus1web.jpg, Green amaranth (''A. hybridus'')
Amaranth2.jpg, Seabeach amaranth (''A. pumilus''), an amaranth on the Federal Threatened species List
Illustration Amaranthus retroflexus0.jpg, Red-root amaranth (''A. retroflexus'')—from Thomé, ''Flora von Deutschland, Österreich und der Schweiz'' 1885
Amaranthus.spinosus1web.jpg, Spiny amaranth ('' A. spinosus'')
Amaranthus.viridis1web.jpg, Green amaranth ('' A. viridis'')
Amaranth sp 2.jpg, Popping amaranth (''Amaranthus sp.'')
Fepm (8).jpg, Amaranth from Chilpancingo
See also
* Ancient grains
References
Further reading
* Howard, Brian Clark.
Amaranth: Another Ancient Wonder Food, But Who Will Eat It?
. National Geographic Online, August 12, 2013.
* Fanton M., Fanton J. ''Amaranth'' The Seed Savers' Handbook. (1993)
* Assad, R., Reshi, Z. A., Jan, S., & Rashid, I. (2017). Biology of amaranths. The Botanical Review, 83(4), 382–436.
External links
Grain amaranth, Crops For A Future
{{Authority control
Leaf vegetables
Tropical agriculture
Asian vegetables
Pseudocereals
E-number additives