God in Islam ( ar, ٱللَّٰه,
Allāh, contraction of ''
al-
’Ilāh'', lit. "the God")
is seen as
the eternal creator and
sustainer of the universe,
[ ]
who will eventually
resurrect all humans. In
Islam
Islam (; ar, ۘالِإسلَام, , ) is an Abrahamic religions, Abrahamic Monotheism#Islam, monotheistic religion centred primarily around the Quran, a religious text considered by Muslims to be the direct word of God in Islam, God (or ...
,
God
In monotheism, monotheistic thought, God is usually viewed as the supreme being, creator deity, creator, and principal object of Faith#Religious views, faith.Richard Swinburne, Swinburne, R.G. "God" in Ted Honderich, Honderich, Ted. (ed)''The Ox ...
is conceived as a perfect,
singular
Singular may refer to:
* Singular, the grammatical number that denotes a unit quantity, as opposed to the plural and other forms
* Singular homology
* SINGULAR, an open source Computer Algebra System (CAS)
* Singular or sounder, a group of boar, ...
, immortal,
omnipotent
Omnipotence is the quality of having unlimited power. Monotheistic religions generally attribute omnipotence only to the deity of their faith. In the monotheistic religious philosophy of Abrahamic religions, omnipotence is often listed as one of ...
, and
omniscient
Omniscience () is the capacity to know everything. In Hinduism, Sikhism and the Abrahamic religions, this is an attribute of God. In Jainism, omniscience is an attribute that any individual can eventually attain. In Buddhism, there are diffe ...
god, completely
infinite
Infinite may refer to:
Mathematics
*Infinite set, a set that is not a finite set
*Infinity, an abstract concept describing something without any limit
Music
* Infinite (group), a South Korean boy band
*''Infinite'' (EP), debut EP of American m ...
in all of his attributes.
Islam further emphasizes that God is most-merciful.
["Allah." ]Encyclopædia Britannica
The (Latin for "British Encyclopædia") is a general knowledge English-language encyclopaedia. It is published by Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.; the company has existed since the 18th century, although it has changed ownership various time ...
. 2007. Encyclopædia Britannica
According to
Islamic theology
Schools of Islamic theology are various Islamic schools and branches in different schools of thought regarding ''ʿaqīdah'' (creed). The main schools of Islamic Theology include the Qadariyah, Falasifa, Jahmiyya, Murji'ah, Muʿtazila, Bati ...
, God has no physical body or gender, although he is always referred to with
masculine grammatical articles, and there is nothing else like him in any way whatsoever. Therefore, Islam rejects the doctrine of the
incarnation
Incarnation literally means ''embodied in flesh'' or ''taking on flesh''. It refers to the conception and the embodiment of a deity or spirit in some earthly form or the appearance of a god as a human. If capitalized, it is the union of divinit ...
and the notion of a
personal god
A personal god, or personal goddess, is a deity who can be related to as a person, instead of as an impersonal force, such as the Absolute, "the All", or the "Ground of Being".
In the scriptures of the Abrahamic religions, God is described as b ...
as
anthropomorphic
Anthropomorphism is the attribution of human traits, emotions, or intentions to non-human entities. It is considered to be an innate tendency of human psychology.
Personification is the related attribution of human form and characteristics t ...
, because it is seen as demeaning to the
transcendence of God. The
Quran
The Quran (, ; Standard Arabic: , Classical Arabic, Quranic Arabic: , , 'the recitation'), also romanized Qur'an or Koran, is the central religious text of Islam, believed by Muslims to be a revelation in Islam, revelation from God in Islam, ...
prescribes the fundamental transcendental criterion in the following verse: "
e is
E, or e, is the fifth letter and the second vowel letter in the Latin alphabet, used in the modern English alphabet, the alphabets of other western European languages and others worldwide. Its name in English is ''e'' (pronounced ); plur ...
the Creator of the heavens and the earth. He has made for you from yourselves, mates, and among the cattle, mates; He multiplies you thereby. There is nothing whatever like unto Him, and He is the One that hears and sees
ll things (). Therefore, Islam strictly and categorically rejects all forms of anthropomorphism and
anthropopathism
Anthropopathism (from Greek ἄνθρωπος ''anthropos'', "human" and πάθος ''pathos'', "suffering") is the attribution of human emotions, or the ascription of human feelings or passions to a non-human being, generally to a deity.
By c ...
of the
concept of God
Conceptions of God in monotheist, pantheist, and panentheist religions – or of the supreme deity in henotheistic religions – can extend to various levels of abstraction:
* as a powerful, personal, supernatural being, or as the ...
.
The Islamic concept of God emphasizes that he is absolutely pure and free from
association with other beings, which means attributing the powers and qualities of God to his creation, and vice versa. In Islam,
God is never portrayed in any image. The Quran specifically forbade ascribing partners to share his singular sovereignty, as he is considered to be the absolute one without a second, indivisible, and incomparable being, who is similar to nothing, and nothing is comparable to him. Thus, God is absolutely
transcendent, unique and utterly other than anything in or of the world as to be beyond all forms of human thought and expression.
The briefest and the most comprehensive description of God in Islam is found in
Surat al-Ikhlas
Al-Ikhlāṣ ( ar, الْإِخْلَاص, "Sincerity"), also known as the Declaration of God's Unity and al-Tawhid ( ar, التوحيد, "Monotheism"), is the 112th chapter (''sūrah'') of the Quran.
According to George Sale, this chapter i ...
.
According to mainstream
Muslim theologians, God is described as '
(Eternal, timeless, and infinite, which literally means: "ancient"), having no first, without beginning or end; absolute, not limited by time or place or circumstance, nor is subject to any decree so as to be determined by any precise limits or set times, but is the First and the Last. He is not a formed body, nor a
substance
Substance may refer to:
* Matter, anything that has mass and takes up space
Chemistry
* Chemical substance, a material with a definite chemical composition
* Drug substance
** Substance abuse, drug-related healthcare and social policy diagnosis ...
circumscribed with limits or determined by measure; neither does he resemble bodies as they are capable of being measured or divided. Neither do substances exist in him; neither is he an accident, nor do accidents exist in him. Neither is he like to anything that exists, nor is anything like to him; nor is he determinate in quantity, nor comprehended by bounds, nor circumscribed by differences of situation, nor contained in the heavens, and transcends spatial and temporal bounds, and remains beyond the bounds of human comprehension and perceptions.
Etymology
''Allāh'' is the
Arabic
Arabic (, ' ; , ' or ) is a Semitic languages, Semitic language spoken primarily across the Arab world.Semitic languages: an international handbook / edited by Stefan Weninger; in collaboration with Geoffrey Khan, Michael P. Streck, Janet C ...
word referring to
God in Abrahamic religions
The concept of God in Abrahamic religions is centred on monotheism. The three major monotheistic religions of Judaism, Christianity, and Islam, alongside the Baháʼí Faith, Samaritanism, Druze, and Rastafari, are all regarded as Abrahamic reli ...
.
In the
English language
English is a West Germanic language of the Indo-European language family, with its earliest forms spoken by the inhabitants of early medieval England. It is named after the Angles, one of the ancient Germanic peoples that migrated to the is ...
, the word generally refers to God in Islam. The Arabic word ''Allāh'' is thought to be derived by
contraction
Contraction may refer to:
Linguistics
* Contraction (grammar), a shortened word
* Poetic contraction, omission of letters for poetic reasons
* Elision, omission of sounds
** Syncope (phonology), omission of sounds in a word
* Synalepha, merged ...
from ''
al-
ʾilāh
' ( ar, إله; plural: ') is an Arabic term meaning "god". In Arabic, ilah refers to anyone or anything that is worshipped. The feminine is ' (, meaning "goddess"); with the article, it appears as ' (). The Arabic word for God (') is thought ...
'', which means "the God",
(i.e., the ''only'' God) and is related to ''
El'' and ''
Elah'', the
Hebrew
Hebrew (; ; ) is a Northwest Semitic language of the Afroasiatic language family. Historically, it is one of the spoken languages of the Israelites and their longest-surviving descendants, the Jews and Samaritans. It was largely preserved ...
and
Aramaic
The Aramaic languages, short Aramaic ( syc, ܐܪܡܝܐ, Arāmāyā; oar, 𐤀𐤓𐤌𐤉𐤀; arc, 𐡀𐡓𐡌𐡉𐡀; tmr, אֲרָמִית), are a language family containing many varieties (languages and dialects) that originated in ...
words for God. It is distinguished from ' ( ar, إِلَٰه), the Arabic word meaning ''
deity
A deity or god is a supernatural being who is considered divine or sacred. The ''Oxford Dictionary of English'' defines deity as a god or goddess, or anything revered as divine. C. Scott Littleton defines a deity as "a being with powers greate ...
'', which could refer to any of the
gods worshipped in pre-Islamic Arabia or to any other deity.
Allah
Allah (; ar, الله, translit=Allāh, ) is the common Arabic word for God. In the English language, the word generally refers to God in Islam. The word is thought to be derived by contraction from '' al- ilāh'', which means "the god", an ...
is God’s most unique Name, grandly referred to as ''Lafẓ al-Jalālah'' (The Word of Majesty). It occurs in the
Qur’an
The Quran (, ; Standard Arabic: , Quranic Arabic: , , 'the recitation'), also romanized Qur'an or Koran, is the central religious text of Islam, believed by Muslims to be a revelation from God. It is organized in 114 chapters (pl.: , sing.: ...
2,697 times in 85 of its 114
suras
The Abhira kingdom in the Mahabharata is either of two kingdoms near the Sarasvati river.
They were dominated by the Abhiras, sometimes referred to as Surabhira also, combining both Sura and Abhira kingdoms. Modern day Abhira territory lies with ...
.
Other names
God is described and referred to in the
Quran
The Quran (, ; Standard Arabic: , Classical Arabic, Quranic Arabic: , , 'the recitation'), also romanized Qur'an or Koran, is the central religious text of Islam, believed by Muslims to be a revelation in Islam, revelation from God in Islam, ...
and ''
hadith
Ḥadīth ( or ; ar, حديث, , , , , , , literally "talk" or "discourse") or Athar ( ar, أثر, , literally "remnant"/"effect") refers to what the majority of Muslims believe to be a record of the words, actions, and the silent approval ...
'' by 99 names that reflect his attributes.
The Quran refers to the attributes of God as "most beautiful names". According to
Gerhard Böwering Professor Gerhard Böwering is a German academic, currently Professor of Islamic Studies within the Department of Religious Studies, Yale University. He was elected to the American Philosophical Society in 1994. He was awarded a Guggenheim Fellows ...
,
Some Muslims may use different names as much as Allah, for instance "God" in
English
English usually refers to:
* English language
* English people
English may also refer to:
Peoples, culture, and language
* ''English'', an adjective for something of, from, or related to England
** English national ide ...
. Whether or not ''Allah'' can be considered as the personal name of God became disputed in contemporary scholarship. In earlier times,
Jahm bin Safwan
Jahm bin Safwan () was an Islamic theologian who attached himself to Al-Harith ibn Surayj, a dissident in Khurasan towards the end of the Umayyad period, and who was put to death in 745 by Salm ibn Ahwaz.
Biography
Jahm was a client of the ...
claimed that ''Allah'' is a name God created for himself and that names belong to the things God created.
Attributes
Oneness
Islam's most fundamental concept is a strict monotheism called ''
tawhid
Tawhid ( ar, , ', meaning "unification of God in Islam ( Allāh)"; also romanized as ''Tawheed'', ''Tawhid'', ''Tauheed'' or ''Tevhid'') is the indivisible oneness concept of monotheism in Islam. Tawhid is the religion's central and single ...
'', affirming that God is one and
Tanzih
''Tanzih'' ( ar, تنزيه) is an Islamic religious concept meaning transcendence. In Islamic theology
Schools of Islamic theology are various Islamic schools and branches in different schools of thought regarding '' ʿaqīdah'' (creed) ...
(''wāḥid''). The basic creed of Islam, the
Shahada
The ''Shahada'' (Arabic: ٱلشَّهَادَةُ , "the testimony"), also transliterated as ''Shahadah'', is an Islamic oath and creed, and one of the Five Pillars of Islam and part of the Adhan. It reads: "I bear witness that there is n ...
(recited under
oath
Traditionally an oath (from Anglo-Saxon ', also called plight) is either a statement of fact or a promise taken by a sacrality as a sign of verity. A common legal substitute for those who conscientiously object to making sacred oaths is to ...
to enter the religion), involves ''()'', or "I testify there is no deity other than God."
Muslims
reject the Christian doctrine of the
Trinity
The Christian doctrine of the Trinity (, from 'threefold') is the central dogma concerning the nature of God in most Christian churches, which defines one God existing in three coequal, coeternal, consubstantial divine persons: God the F ...
and divinity of
Jesus
Jesus, likely from he, יֵשׁוּעַ, translit=Yēšūaʿ, label=Hebrew/Aramaic ( AD 30 or 33), also referred to as Jesus Christ or Jesus of Nazareth (among other names and titles), was a first-century Jewish preacher and religious ...
, comparing it to
polytheism
Polytheism is the belief in multiple deities, which are usually assembled into a pantheon of gods and goddesses, along with their own religious sects and rituals. Polytheism is a type of theism. Within theism, it contrasts with monotheism, the ...
. Jesus is instead believed to be a prophet.
Tawhid constitutes the foremost article of the Muslim profession.
[D. Gimaret, ''Tawhid'', ]Encyclopaedia of Islam
The ''Encyclopaedia of Islam'' (''EI'') is an encyclopaedia of the academic discipline of Islamic studies published by Brill. It is considered to be the standard reference work in the field of Islamic studies. The first edition was published in ...
The deification or worship of anyone or anything other than God (
shirk) is the greatest sin in Islam. The entirety of the Islamic teaching rests on the principle of Tawhid.
According to Vincent J. Cornell, the Quran also provides a
monist
Monism attributes oneness or singleness (Greek: μόνος) to a concept e.g., existence. Various kinds of monism can be distinguished:
* Priority monism states that all existing things go back to a source that is distinct from them; e.g., i ...
image of God by describing the reality as a unified whole, with God being a single concept that would describe or ascribe all existing things: "He is the First and the Last, the Evident and the Immanent: and He has full knowledge of all things."
Uniqueness
Islam emphasises the absolute uniqueness and singularity of God in his essence, attributes, qualities, and acts. As stated in
Surat al-Ikhlas
Al-Ikhlāṣ ( ar, الْإِخْلَاص, "Sincerity"), also known as the Declaration of God's Unity and al-Tawhid ( ar, التوحيد, "Monotheism"), is the 112th chapter (''sūrah'') of the Quran.
According to George Sale, this chapter i ...
: God is
Ahad Ahad ( fa, احد) ( ar, احد) ( ur, احد) is a Middle Eastern given forename primarily used by Muslims and Jews. It is also used as a family name (surname) (e.g. Oli Ahad).
In Arabic Ahad means "one" and is usually used by Muslims when referr ...
(the unique one of absolute oneness, who is indivisible in nature, and there can be no other like him); God is
Ash-Shamad (the ultimate source of all existence, the uncaused cause who created all things out of nothing, who is eternal, absolute, immutable, perfect, complete, essential, independent, and self-sufficient; who needs nothing while all of creation is in absolute need of him; the one eternally and constantly required and sought, depended upon by all existence and to whom all matters will ultimately return); he begets not, nor is he begotten (He is Unborn and Uncreated, has no parents, wife or offspring); and comparable/equal to him, there is none.
God's absolute transcendence over his creation, as well as his unlimited individuality were asserted and emphasized with support from appropriate quotations from the Qur'an as follows:
The Qur'anic verse
19:65, "Do you know of any that can be named with His Name?" emphasizes that as
Allah
Allah (; ar, الله, translit=Allāh, ) is the common Arabic word for God. In the English language, the word generally refers to God in Islam. The word is thought to be derived by contraction from '' al- ilāh'', which means "the god", an ...
is Unique, His name is shared by none other.
Such as that described in the previous three verses (). For the disbelievers in the Hereafter, there is an evil description, or in other words, the most evil attribute (i.e., the most vile), which is their ignorance and ingratitude, and their
burying alive of newborn girls, despite the fact that they are needed for the purposes of marriage and not allowing women to even inherit property, and their ascribing female gender to
angels
In various theistic religious traditions an angel is a supernatural spiritual being who serves God.
Abrahamic religions often depict angels as benevolent celestial intermediaries between God (or Heaven) and humanity. Other roles include ...
and claiming that the angels are the daughters of God while so preferring sons for themselves (this is also mentioned in the verses ); whereas to God belong the highest attribute, namely, that there is no
deity
A deity or god is a supernatural being who is considered divine or sacred. The ''Oxford Dictionary of English'' defines deity as a god or goddess, or anything revered as divine. C. Scott Littleton defines a deity as "a being with powers greate ...
except him, immensely exalted beyond and above all comparison and likeness.
The Qur'anic verse
42:11 emphasizes that there is no similarity whatsoever between the creator and his creation in essence, in attributes or in actions, and therefore, God is beyond all human concepts of him. So he has no mates and nothing is like him, nor does he beget, nor is he begotten. Nothing – neither matter, nor space, nor time – can restrict or contain him. And this is why his Attributes – his hearing, seeing, knowledge, will, power, creating, and so on – are also beyond anything we can conceive.
The same sentiment is expressed in the Qur'anic verse
6:103 which states:
"Vision perceives/comprehends Him not, and He perceives/comprehends (evaluates) all vision." In some interpretations, this verse also asserts that the senses and intellects cannot fully comprehend God. Likewise, the Qur'an also says:
The
Hanafi
The Hanafi school ( ar, حَنَفِية, translit=Ḥanafiyah; also called Hanafite in English), Hanafism, or the Hanafi fiqh, is the oldest and one of the four traditional major Sunni schools ( maddhab) of Islamic Law (Fiqh). It is named aft ...
jurist and theologian,
al-Tahawi
Abu Ja'far Ahmad al-Tahawi ( ar, أبو جعفر الطحاوي, translit=Abū Jaʿfar Aḥmad aṭ-Ṭaḥāwī) (843 – 5 November 933), or simply aṭ-Ṭaḥāwī (Arabic: ), was an Egyptians, Egyptian Arabs, Arab Hanafi jurist and Traditiona ...
(d. 321/933), wrote in his treatise on theology, commonly known as ''
al-'Aqida al-Tahawiyya
Al-'Aqida al-Tahawiyya ( ar, العقيدة الطحاوية ) or ''bayān 'ittiqād ahl al-sunnah wal jamā'ah'' ( ar, بيان اعتقاد أهل السنة والجماعة) is a popular exposition of Sunni Muslim doctrine written by the tent ...
'':
Al-Tahawi also stated that:
The six directions are: above, below, right, left, front and back. The above statement of al-Tahawi refutes the
anthropomorphist
Anthropomorphism is the attribution of human traits, emotions, or intentions to non-human entities. It is considered to be an innate tendency of human psychology.
Personification is the related attribution of human form and characteristics t ...
's dogmas that imagine Allah has a physical body and human form, and being occupied in a place, direction or trajectory.
Creator
According to the teachings of
Islam
Islam (; ar, ۘالِإسلَام, , ) is an Abrahamic religions, Abrahamic Monotheism#Islam, monotheistic religion centred primarily around the Quran, a religious text considered by Muslims to be the direct word of God in Islam, God (or ...
, God is the creator of the worlds and all the creatures therein. He has created everything in the worlds in accordance with a definite plan and for a particular purpose. There is no shortcoming or defect of any sort in any of his creations. The Qur'an confirms this in the following verses:
The Qur'an also says in verse
25:2: "and He has created everything and designed it in a perfect measure (and ordained its destiny in a precise manner)." And in another verse
25:59 it is emphasized: "It is He who created the heavens and the earth, and all that is between them."
The Qur'an states that God is the ''
Rabb
Rabb ( ar, رب, ''Rabb'', sometimes "''rabb'' (-i/-u/-a)"), is often used to refer to God in Arabic (''Allah'') as the "Lord" or "master". It is used by adherents of various religions, including Muslims, Christians, Hindus, and Sikhs across the Mi ...
al-'Alamin''. When referring to God, the Arabic term "Rabb" is usually translated as "Lord" and can include all of the following meanings: "owner, master, ruler, controller, creator, upbringer, trainer, sustainer, nourisher, cherisher, provider, protector, guardian and caretaker." The same term, ''Rabb'', is used in a limited sense for humans as in the "head" of the family, "master" of the house, or "owner" of the land or cattle. The Arabic word "al-'Alamin" can be translated as the "Worlds" or "Universes". There are many worlds, astronomical and physical worlds, worlds of thought, spiritual worlds, everything in existence including angels, jinn, devils, humans, animals, plants, and so on. The "Worlds" may also be taken to refer to different domains or kingdoms within this earthly world, or other worlds beyond this earth. Thus, the Qur'anic expression ''Rabb al-'Alamin'' really means the "Creator of the Worlds", the "Ruler of the Universes", the "Creator and Sustainer of all the peoples and Universes".
Mercy
The most commonly used names in the primary sources are ''
Al-Rahman'', meaning "Most Compassionate" and ''Al-Rahim'', meaning "Most Merciful".
The former compasses the whole creation, therefore applying to God's mercy in that it gives every necessary condition to make life possible. The latter applies to God's mercy in that it gives favor for good deeds. Thus ''Al-Rahman'' includes both the believers and the unbelievers, but ''Al-Rahim'' only the believers. God is said to love forgiving, with a hadith stating God would replace a sinless people with one who sinned but still asked repentance.
Omniscience
God's
omniscience
Omniscience () is the capacity to know everything. In Hinduism, Sikhism and the Abrahamic religions, this is an God#General conceptions, attribute of God. In Jainism, omniscience is an attribute that any individual can eventually attain. In B ...
is the knowledge of all things, whether they are actual or possible or whether they are past, present, or future. It also includes his knowledge of people, places, events, circumstances, etc. God has full knowledge of everything, everywhere, always and from eternity past, and he is fully aware of whatever one thinks, intends, and does, and the reins of all things and events are in his power. He knows whatever happens in the universe, down to the fall of a leaf, and he knows all the deeds, thought, and intentions of humankind. His appointed
angels
In various theistic religious traditions an angel is a supernatural spiritual being who serves God.
Abrahamic religions often depict angels as benevolent celestial intermediaries between God (or Heaven) and humanity. Other roles include ...
record these, and people will be called to account for these acts in the other world. His knowledge is eternal in the sense of being timeless, i.e., atemporal. So, since God's knowledge is eternal and unchanging, it is likewise self‐existent and infinite. It is self‐existent in that it is not dependent on anything, not even
time
Time is the continued sequence of existence and events that occurs in an apparently irreversible succession from the past, through the present, into the future. It is a component quantity of various measurements used to sequence events, to ...
. According to the
Qur'an
The Quran (, ; Standard Arabic: , Quranic Arabic: , , 'the recitation'), also romanized Qur'an or Koran, is the central religious text of Islam, believed by Muslims to be a revelation from God. It is organized in 114 chapters (pl.: , sing. ...
, God (
Allah
Allah (; ar, الله, translit=Allāh, ) is the common Arabic word for God. In the English language, the word generally refers to God in Islam. The word is thought to be derived by contraction from '' al- ilāh'', which means "the god", an ...
) is omniscient; he eternally knows whatever comes into being, be it universal or particular in character. He has known all things from before the creation of the world. His knowledge of things before their coming into existence and afterwards is exactly the same. Hence, there is no discovery or surprise with God.
Muslim theologians therefore considered that “omniscience” is a necessary and “ignorance” is an impossible property for God. Various Qur'anic verses designate this basic intuition, such as
3:56:5965:12 an
24:35
Relationship with creation
Muslims believe that God is the only true reality and sole source of all creation, everything including its creatures are just a derivative reality created out of love and mercy by God's command, "
..."Be," and it is." and that the
purpose of existence is to
worship
Worship is an act of religious devotion usually directed towards a deity. It may involve one or more of activities such as veneration, adoration, praise, and praying. For many, worship is not about an emotion, it is more about a recognition ...
or to ''know'' God.
[David Leeming ''The Oxford Companion to World Mythology'' Oxford University Press 2005 page 209] It is believed that God created everything for a divine purpose; the universe governed by fixed laws that ensure the harmonious working of all things. Everything within the universe, including inanimate objects, praises God, and is in this sense understood as a ''Muslim''.
[Roger S. Gottlieb''The Oxford Handbook of Religion and Ecology'' Oxford University Press, 9 Nov 2006 p. 210] An exception are humans, who are endowed with free-will and must live voluntarily in accordance with these laws to live to find peace and reproduce God's benevolence in their own society to live in accordance with the nature of all things, known as ''surrender'' to God in the Islamic sense.
As in the other
Abrahamic religions
The Abrahamic religions are a group of religions centered around worship of the God of Abraham. Abraham, a Hebrew patriarch, is extensively mentioned throughout Abrahamic religious scriptures such as the Bible and the Quran.
Jewish tradition ...
, God is believed to communicate with his creation via
revelation
In religion and theology, revelation is the revealing or disclosing of some form of truth or knowledge through communication with a deity or other supernatural entity or entities.
Background
Inspiration – such as that bestowed by God on the ...
s given to
prophets
In religion, a prophet or prophetess is an individual who is regarded as being in contact with a divine being and is said to speak on behalf of that being, serving as an intermediary with humanity by delivering messages or teachings from the su ...
to remind people of God. The
Qur'an
The Quran (, ; Standard Arabic: , Quranic Arabic: , , 'the recitation'), also romanized Qur'an or Koran, is the central religious text of Islam, believed by Muslims to be a revelation from God. It is organized in 114 chapters (pl.: , sing. ...
in particular is believed by
Muslims
Muslims ( ar, المسلمون, , ) are people who adhere to Islam, a monotheistic religion belonging to the Abrahamic tradition. They consider the Quran, the foundational religious text of Islam, to be the verbatim word of the God of Abraha ...
to be the verbatim word of God as revealed to
Muhammad
Muhammad ( ar, مُحَمَّد; 570 – 8 June 632 Common Era, CE) was an Arab religious, social, and political leader and the founder of Islam. According to Muhammad in Islam, Islamic doctrine, he was a prophet Divine inspiration, di ...
.
Hadith
Ḥadīth ( or ; ar, حديث, , , , , , , literally "talk" or "discourse") or Athar ( ar, أثر, , literally "remnant"/"effect") refers to what the majority of Muslims believe to be a record of the words, actions, and the silent approval ...
are the records of Muhammad's sayings and example, and
Hadith Qudsi
Ḥadīth ( or ; ar, حديث, , , , , , , literally "talk" or "discourse") or Athar ( ar, أثر, , literally "remnant"/"effect") refers to what the majority of Muslims believe to be a record of the words, actions, and the silent approval ...
is a sub-category of hadith, which Muslims regard as the words of God repeated by
Muhammad
Muhammad ( ar, مُحَمَّد; 570 – 8 June 632 Common Era, CE) was an Arab religious, social, and political leader and the founder of Islam. According to Muhammad in Islam, Islamic doctrine, he was a prophet Divine inspiration, di ...
. According to
al-Sharif al-Jurjani
Ali ibn Mohammed al-Jurjani (1339–1414) ( Persian ) was a Persian encyclopedic writer and traditionalist theologian. He is referred to as "al-Sayyid al-Sharif" in sources due to his alleged descent from Ali ibn Abi Taleb. He was born in the v ...
(d. 816/1413), the
Hadith Qudsi
Ḥadīth ( or ; ar, حديث, , , , , , , literally "talk" or "discourse") or Athar ( ar, أثر, , literally "remnant"/"effect") refers to what the majority of Muslims believe to be a record of the words, actions, and the silent approval ...
differ from the Qur'an in that the former are "expressed in Muhammad's words", whereas the latter are the "direct words of God".
In
Islam
Islam (; ar, ۘالِإسلَام, , ) is an Abrahamic religions, Abrahamic Monotheism#Islam, monotheistic religion centred primarily around the Quran, a religious text considered by Muslims to be the direct word of God in Islam, God (or ...
, there are no intermediaries between God and people, so Muslims address/contact God directly in their prayers,
supplications and
dhikr
''Dhikr'' ( ar, ذِكْر}, , also spelled ''Zikr'', ''Thikr'', ''Zekr'', or ''Zikar'', literally meaning "remembrance, reminder" or "mention") is a form of Islamic meditation in which phrases or prayers are repeatedly chanted in order to reme ...
, and also seek
forgiveness
Forgiveness, in a psychological sense, is the intentional and voluntary process by which one who may initially feel victimized or wronged, goes through a change in feelings and attitude regarding a given offender, and overcomes the impact of th ...
and
repentance
Repentance is reviewing one's actions and feeling contrition or regret for past wrongs, which is accompanied by commitment to and actual actions that show and prove a change for the better.
In modern times, it is generally seen as involving a co ...
from sins directly from God, as the Qur'an states: Therefore, according to this verse, God answers all the prayers done sincerely. However, he answers sometimes by giving whatever is asked for, sometimes by giving what is better, sometimes by postponing giving to the afterlife, and sometimes by not giving at all, since it will not turn out in favor of the one who prays. The way that God answers a prayer depends on his wisdom.
Al-Bukhari, in his ''
'', narrates a
hadith qudsi
Ḥadīth ( or ; ar, حديث, , , , , , , literally "talk" or "discourse") or Athar ( ar, أثر, , literally "remnant"/"effect") refers to what the majority of Muslims believe to be a record of the words, actions, and the silent approval ...
that God says, "I am as My servant thinks (expects) I am." When
Sufi
Sufism ( ar, ''aṣ-ṣūfiyya''), also known as Tasawwuf ( ''at-taṣawwuf''), is a mystic body of religious practice, found mainly within Sunni Islam but also within Shia Islam, which is characterized by a focus on Islamic spirituality, ...
s claim union with God, it is not that they become one in essence, rather the will of the Sufi is fully congruent to God. The Sufis are in fact careful to say, no matter what degree of union is realized, "the slave remains the slave, and the Lord remains the Lord".
The Qur'an affirms that God does not stand in need of anything outside him, and nothing external to him can affect or influence him in any way. All his creatures are responsible to him and dependent on him. There is no other being to whom he can be responsible or on whom he can be dependent. He has the right to do whatever he wants with his possessions/creatures – it is under God's own total sovereignty. Accordingly, he is not answerable for his actions, due to his wisdom and justice, greatness and uniqueness of
Divinity
Divinity or the divine are things that are either related to, devoted to, or proceeding from a deity.[divine ...](_blank)
, while all others (jinn, humans, or false deities) are accountable for what they do (and don't do), as God says in the Qur'an:
While the existence of the creation is dependent, contingent, temporal, and received from beyond itself, the existence or reality of God is eternal, independent, self-sufficient, and self-existent being who needs no other being for his existence, and consequently exists by and through himself alone. The divine name
al-Samad (the supremely independent, self-sufficient being endowed with all the attributes of perfection to which all else turns in need for existence, life, guidance, help, forgiveness, etc.) implies that there is a blessed linkage between the creator and his creation where the one creator will sustain the creation by looking after it. This relationship also signifies that since God is the sustainer, he is in need of nothing, and even as he gives, nothing is diminished from his treasury.
Concepts in Islamic theology
Sunnis
Atharis
For
Atharis
Atharī theology or Atharism ( ar, الأثرية: / , "archeological"), otherwise referred to as Traditionalist theology or Scripturalist theology, is one of the main Sunni schools of Islamic theology. It emerged as an Islamic scholarly moveme ...
the names and attributes of God are to be understood with the formula of
bila kayfa (lit. “without how”, i.e., “without modality”, “without further enquiry” or “without further specifying their manner or modality”), which is to unquestioningly accept the Divine attributes of God without
ta'wil
Esoteric interpretation of the Quran ( ar, تأويل, taʾwīl) is the allegorical interpretation of the Quran or the quest for its hidden, inner meanings. The Arabic word ''taʾwīl'' was synonymous with Tafsir, conventional interpretation in i ...
(allegorical interpretation), or
ta'til
In Islamic theology, taʿṭīl ( ar, تَعْطِيل) means "divesting" God of His attributes. The word literally means to suspend and stop the work and refers to a form of apophatic theology which is said because God bears no resemblance to ...
(lit. “suspension”, i.e., “divesting God of His attributes”), or
tashbih
''Tashbih'' ( ar, تشبيه) is an Islamic religious concept meaning anthropomorphism, assimilating/comparing God to His creatures. In Islamic theology, two opposite terms are attributed to Allah, ''tashbih'' and ''tanzih'' ( transcendence).
H ...
(
anthropomorphism
Anthropomorphism is the attribution of human traits, emotions, or intentions to non-human entities. It is considered to be an innate tendency of human psychology.
Personification is the related attribution of human form and characteristics t ...
,
immanence
The doctrine or theory of immanence holds that the divine encompasses or is manifested in the material world. It is held by some philosophical and metaphysical theories of divine presence. Immanence is usually applied in monotheistic, pantheis ...
or comparison, which is to believe that God resembles his creations, or attributing the attributes of human beings to God).
Any anthropomorphic expressions of these names and attributes is negated using the admission that their meanings can never be known. The meaning is left to the knowledge of God himself, and they simply say that the meaning is as befits his majesty and perfection. This method of
tafwid
Tafwid ( ar, تفويض) is an Arabic term meaning "relegation" or "delegation", with uses in theology and law.
In theology
In Islamic theology, ''tafwid'' (or ''tafwid al-amr li-llah'', relegation of matters to God) is a doctrine according to ...
is that of
Ahmad ibn Hanbal
Ahmad ibn Hanbal al-Dhuhli ( ar, أَحْمَد بْن حَنْبَل الذهلي, translit=Aḥmad ibn Ḥanbal al-Dhuhlī; November 780 – 2 August 855 CE/164–241 AH), was a Muslim jurist, theologian, ascetic, hadith traditionist, and ...
(eponymous founder of Atharism),
al-Ash'ari
Abū al-Ḥasan al-Ashʿarī (; full name: ''Abū al-Ḥasan ʿAlī ibn Ismāʿīl ibn Isḥāq al-Ashʿarī''; c. 874–936 CE/260–324 AH), often reverently referred to as Imām al-Ashʿarī by Sunnī Muslims, was an Arab Muslim scholar ...
,
Ibn Qudama
Ibn Qudāmah al-Maqdisī Muwaffaq al-Dīn Abū Muḥammad ʿAbd Allāh b. Aḥmad b. Muḥammad ( ar, ابن قدامة المقدسي موفق الدين ابو محمد عبد الله بن احمد بن محمد ; 1147 - 7 July 1223), often re ...
, and
Ibn Kathir
Abū al-Fiḍā’ ‘Imād ad-Dīn Ismā‘īl ibn ‘Umar ibn Kathīr al-Qurashī al-Damishqī (Arabic: إسماعيل بن عمر بن كثير القرشي الدمشقي أبو الفداء عماد; – 1373), known as Ibn Kathīr (, was ...
.
Usually Atharis are vehemently opposed to engaging in ta'wil (allegorical interpretations) and reject
batin (inner meaning) or hidden/esoteric (
Sufi
Sufism ( ar, ''aṣ-ṣūfiyya''), also known as Tasawwuf ( ''at-taṣawwuf''), is a mystic body of religious practice, found mainly within Sunni Islam but also within Shia Islam, which is characterized by a focus on Islamic spirituality, ...
) interpretations of the Qur'an and God's divine attributes. In maintaining that one is not permitted to interpret the meaning of the Qur'anic verses or the Prophetic traditions that mention various attributes of God,
Ibn Qudama
Ibn Qudāmah al-Maqdisī Muwaffaq al-Dīn Abū Muḥammad ʿAbd Allāh b. Aḥmad b. Muḥammad ( ar, ابن قدامة المقدسي موفق الدين ابو محمد عبد الله بن احمد بن محمد ; 1147 - 7 July 1223), often re ...
(d. 620/1223) in his work ' (“The Luminance of Creed”) is endorsing the principle of bila kayfa ('without
sking or knowing
Skiing is the use of skis to glide on snow. Variations of purpose include basic transport, a recreational activity, or a competitive winter sport. Many types of competitive skiing events are recognized by the International Olympic Committee (IO ...
how') in
Islamic theology
Schools of Islamic theology are various Islamic schools and branches in different schools of thought regarding ''ʿaqīdah'' (creed). The main schools of Islamic Theology include the Qadariyah, Falasifa, Jahmiyya, Murji'ah, Muʿtazila, Bati ...
. According to this principle, one has to accept the sacred text as it is, indissolubly linked with
tanzih
''Tanzih'' ( ar, تنزيه) is an Islamic religious concept meaning transcendence. In Islamic theology
Schools of Islamic theology are various Islamic schools and branches in different schools of thought regarding '' ʿaqīdah'' (creed) ...
(God's incomparability and transcendence), without trying to interpret its meaning. In other words, one must accept the sacred texts that refer to God without positively ascribing corporeal features to him.
Ibn al-Jawzi
ʿAbd al-Raḥmān b. ʿAlī b. Muḥammad Abu 'l-Faras̲h̲ b. al-Jawzī, often referred to as Ibn al-Jawzī (Arabic: ابن الجوزي, ''Ibn al-Jawzī''; ca. 1116 – 16 June 1201) for short, or reverentially as ''Imam Ibn al-Jawzī'' by ...
(d. 597/1201) took the question of people associating anthropomorphism with
Hanbalism
The Hanbali school ( ar, ٱلْمَذْهَب ٱلْحَنۢبَلِي, al-maḏhab al-ḥanbalī) is one of the four major traditional Sunni Islam, Sunni schools (''Madhhab, madhahib'') of Fiqh, Islamic jurisprudence. It is named after the Arab ...
so seriously that he wrote a book, ''
Daf' Shubah al-Tashbih bi-Akaff al-Tanzih
Kitab Akhbar al-Sifat ( ar, كتاب أخبار الصفات), better known as Daf' Shubah al-Tashbih bi-Akaff al-Tanzih ( ar, دفع شبه التشبيه بأكف التنزيه), or Al-Baz al-Ashhab al-Munqadd 'ala Mukhalifi al-Madhhab ( ar, ...
'' (“Rebuttal of the Insinuations of Anthropomorphism at the Hands of Divine Transcendence”), refuting this heresy and exonerating Ahmad ibn Hanbal of any association with it.
[Ibn al-Jawzi's Daf' Shubah al-Tashbih is a refutation of the historical anthropomorphic leanings of some of the Hanbali scholars.] According to him, such words whose meanings could give the impression that God resembles his creations shouldn't be understood literally, such as God's face, hands, eyes, and the like.
Another book was written by the Shafi'i scholar, (d. 829/1426), titled ' (“Rebuttal of the Insinuations of him who makes Anthropomorphisms and Rebels, and Ascribes that to the Noble Master Imam Ahmad”), defending Ahmad ibn Hanbal against the innovated beliefs later ascribed to him by Ibn Taymiyya and those who claimed to follow his school.
Ibn Kathir
Abū al-Fiḍā’ ‘Imād ad-Dīn Ismā‘īl ibn ‘Umar ibn Kathīr al-Qurashī al-Damishqī (Arabic: إسماعيل بن عمر بن كثير القرشي الدمشقي أبو الفداء عماد; – 1373), known as Ibn Kathīr (, was ...
(d. 774/1373) appears to offer a definition similar to that of
al-Ash'ari
Abū al-Ḥasan al-Ashʿarī (; full name: ''Abū al-Ḥasan ʿAlī ibn Ismāʿīl ibn Isḥāq al-Ashʿarī''; c. 874–936 CE/260–324 AH), often reverently referred to as Imām al-Ashʿarī by Sunnī Muslims, was an Arab Muslim scholar ...
(d. 324/936) when he discusses
tafwid
Tafwid ( ar, تفويض) is an Arabic term meaning "relegation" or "delegation", with uses in theology and law.
In theology
In Islamic theology, ''tafwid'' (or ''tafwid al-amr li-llah'', relegation of matters to God) is a doctrine according to ...
in his exegesis of the Qur'anic verse
7:54 pertaining to God's istiwa'. He states:
Here Ibn Kathir is diverting the meaning of the text from its apparent meaning, and implicitly affirming that one valid definition of the term zahir is its literal linguistic meaning, which is anthropomorphic. However, some modern followers of
Ibn Taymiyya
Ibn Taymiyyah (January 22, 1263 – September 26, 1328; ar, ابن تيمية), birth name Taqī ad-Dīn ʾAḥmad ibn ʿAbd al-Ḥalīm ibn ʿAbd al-Salām al-Numayrī al-Ḥarrānī ( ar, تقي الدين أحمد بن عبد الحليم ...
claim that ''bi lā takyīf'' would only mean tafwid of modality not of meaning (ma'na), but according to the
Ash'ari
Ashʿarī theology or Ashʿarism (; ar, الأشعرية: ) is one of the main Sunnī schools of Islamic theology, founded by the Muslim scholar, Shāfiʿī jurist, reformer, and scholastic theologian Abū al-Ḥasan al-Ashʿarī in the ...
/
Maturidi
Māturīdī theology or Māturīdism ( ar, الماتريدية: ''al-Māturīdiyyah'') is one of the main Sunnī schools of Islamic theology, founded by the Persian Muslim scholar, Ḥanafī jurist, reformer (''Mujaddid''), and scholastic th ...
position, modality (kayfiyya) is a part of meaning and without detailing which aspect of meaning remains after de-anthropomorphizing a term, one ends up with tafwid. In addition to that the imams of the salaf (the righteous early generations of Muslims) used to say bila kayf (without how or modality at all). On the other hand, both Ibn Taymiyya (d. 728/1328) and his student
Ibn al-Qayyim
Shams al-Dīn Abū ʿAbd Allāh Muḥammad ibn Abī Bakr ibn Ayyūb al-Zurʿī l-Dimashqī l-Ḥanbalī (29 January 1292–15 September 1350 CE / 691 AH–751 AH), commonly known as Ibn Qayyim al-Jawziyya ("The son of the principal of he school ...
(d. 751/1350) argued that the anthropomorphic references to God, such as God's hands or face, are to be understood literally and affirmatively according to their apparent meanings.
In their footsteps and following them come the
Salafi
The Salafi movement or Salafism () is a reform branch movement within Sunni Islam that originated during the nineteenth century. The name refers to advocacy of a return to the traditions of the "pious predecessors" (), the first three generat ...
groups of modern times such as the followers of
Muhammad ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab
Muhammad ibn Abd al-Wahhab ibn Sulayman al-Tamimi ( ar, محمد بن عبد الوهاب بن سليمان , translit=Muḥammad ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhāb ibn Sulaymān al-Tamīmī; 1703–1792) was an Arabs, Arabian Islamic scholar, Islamic theology, ...
(d. 1201/1787) who closely follow Ibn Taymiyya's approach regarding the Divine names and attributes.
The doctrine of the
Salaf
Salaf ( ar, سلف, "ancestors" or "predecessors"), also often referred to with the honorific expression of "al-salaf al-ṣāliḥ" (, "the pious predecessors") are often taken to be the first three generations of Muslims. This comprises Muhamm ...
that Ibn Taymiyya derives from his traditionalist sources consists in describing God as he describes himself and as his messenger describes him, neither stripping the attributes away (ta'til) in the fashion of
kalam
''ʿIlm al-Kalām'' ( ar, عِلْم الكَلام, literally "science of discourse"), usually foreshortened to ''Kalām'' and sometimes called "Islamic scholastic theology" or "speculative theology", is the philosophical study of Islamic doc ...
(rational or speculative theology), nor likening (tamthil) them to the attributes of creatures because there is nothing like God
. 42:11 For Ibn Taymiyya, this means that the Salaf knew the meanings of the Divine attributes, and they do not merely delegate them to God. However, certain formulaic statements attributed to them do not appear to support his position unequivocally. Ibn Taymiyya notes that al-Awza'i (d. 157/774),
Sufyan al-Thawri
Sufyan al-Thawri ( ar, أبو عبد الله سفيان بن سعيد بن مسروق الثوري, ʼAbu ʿAbd Allāh Sufyān ibn Saʻīd ibn Masrūq al-Thawrī ; 716–778) was a ''Tābi‘ al-Tābi‘īn'' Islamic scholar, jurist, and founder ...
(d. 161/778), and others said concerning the attributes, "Let them pass by as they came", and "Let them pass by as they came, without how". He explains that letting the attributes pass by (imrār) means leaving them intact and not stripping away their meanings, while affirming the attributes "without how" or "without modality" (bi-lā kayf) means not assimilating them to the attributes of creatures. With this, Ibn Taymiyya holds affirmation of the meanings of God's attributes together with denial of their likeness to creatures in a double perspective by drawing a distinction between the known meanings of the attributes and their inscrutable modalities.
Ibn Taymiyya does not clarify how modality (kayfiyya) and meaning (ma'na) relate to each other semantically. Rather, he deploys the two terms in tandem to maintain the seemingly paradoxical conviction that God is completely different and beyond human experience on the one hand while God's attributes do signify something real and meaningful in human language on the other. In denying knowledge of the modality and affirming knowledge of the meaning, Ibn Taymiyya does not resolve the paradox, nor even acknowledge it, but simply holds its two sides together in the conviction that this is the most faithful and rational set of beliefs.
It is often assumed that the question of God's nature has occupied the minds of early Muslims, and as such Muhammad forbade them from thinking about it, as he said: "Think about God's bounties, but do not think about God's essence (dhat). Otherwise, you will vanish/perish." Accordingly, Muslims should not think about what God is, but about his attributes and his blessings granted to humanity, because God's essence (dhat) cannot be understood by the limited human capacity. In this regard it has been mentioned in some narrations that are ascribed to Ahmad ibn Hanbal (d. 241/855), it has been reported that he said:
[This statement also attributed to Dhu al-Nun al-Misri (d. 246/861).] "Whatever comes to your mind (i.e., regarding God and His nature), God is different than that." Or in the words: "God is completely different from whatever comes to your mind concerning Him."
According to
al-Shahrastani
Tāj al-Dīn Abū al-Fath Muhammad ibn `Abd al-Karīm ash-Shahrastānī ( ar, تاج الدين أبو الفتح محمد بن عبد الكريم الشهرستاني; 1086–1153 CE), also known as Muhammad al-Shahrastānī, was an influenti ...
(d. 548/1154) in his
al-Milal wa al-Nihal
''Kitāb al–Milal wa al-Nihal'' (Arabic: كتاب الملل والنحل, ''The Book of Sects and Creeds''), written by the Islamic scholar Muhammad al-Shahrastani (d. 1153 CE), is a non-polemical study of religious communities and philosophies ...
(“Religious Sects and Divisions”), Ahmad ibn Hanbal and
Dawud al-Zahiri
Dāwūd bin ʿAlī bin Khalaf al-Ẓāhirī ( ar, داود بن علي بن خلف الظاهري) (c. 815–883/4 CE, 199-269/270 AH) was a Persian Muslim scholar, jurist, and theologian during the Islamic Golden Age, specialized in the stud ...
(d. 270/884) and a group of imams of the Salaf, they followed the way of the early traditionalists (
ashab al-hadith), such as
Malik ibn Anas
Malik ibn Anas ( ar, مَالِك بن أَنَس, 711–795 CE / 93–179 AH), whose full name is Mālik bin Anas bin Mālik bin Abī ʿĀmir bin ʿAmr bin Al-Ḥārith bin Ghaymān bin Khuthayn bin ʿAmr bin Al-Ḥārith al-Aṣbaḥī ...
(d. 179/795). They took a safe path, saying "We believe in whatever is reported from the Book and the Sunna, and we do not try to interpret it, knowing for certain that God does not resemble any created things, and that all the images we form of Him are created by Him and formed by Him". They avoided
anthropomorphism
Anthropomorphism is the attribution of human traits, emotions, or intentions to non-human entities. It is considered to be an innate tendency of human psychology.
Personification is the related attribution of human form and characteristics t ...
(tashbih) to such an extent that they said that if a man moved his hand while reading the Qur'anic verse that speaks of God's creating
Adam
Adam; el, Ἀδάμ, Adám; la, Adam is the name given in Genesis 1-5 to the first human. Beyond its use as the name of the first man, ''adam'' is also used in the Bible as a pronoun, individually as "a human" and in a collective sense as " ...
using his own “hands” [Q
38:75; or if he pointed with his two fingers while reporting the
hadith
Ḥadīth ( or ; ar, حديث, , , , , , , literally "talk" or "discourse") or Athar ( ar, أثر, , literally "remnant"/"effect") refers to what the majority of Muslims believe to be a record of the words, actions, and the silent approval ...
: "The heart of the believer is between the two fingers of al-Rahman (the Most Compassionate)", his hand must be cut off and the two fingers torn out.
These early scholars were often called the People of Tradition (Ahl al-Hadith), or Salaf such as Abu Hanifa, Malik,
al-Shafi'i
Abū ʿAbdillāh Muḥammad ibn Idrīs al-Shāfiʿī ( ar, أَبُو عَبْدِ ٱللهِ مُحَمَّدُ بْنُ إِدْرِيسَ ٱلشَّافِعِيُّ, 767–19 January 820 CE) was an Arab Muslim theologian, writer, and schola ...
and Ahmad ibn Hanbal. They left the verses of the Qur'an in question as well as the related hadiths simply as they were, accepting the poetical statements just as they occurred, without applying much reason either to criticize or expand upon them. Their position was that these ambiguous verses must be understood in light of the Qur'anic dictum that, “There is nothing whatever like Him”
. 42:11hence negating all possibilities of anthropomorphism. At the same time, they used and maintained the same phrases or terminology implied by the Qur'an with regards to God such as God's face without looking further into their meaning or exegesis. And this is what is being referred to by use of their phrase ''bila kayfa wa la tashbih'', meaning without inquiring how and without anthropomorphism or comparison.
However, according to some scholars, Ahmad ibn Hanbal, like the other early Muslims, also gave some figurative interpretations (ta'wil) to scriptural expressions that might otherwise have been misinterpreted anthropomorphically, which is what neo-Salafis condemn the Ash'ari and Maturidi schools for doing. For example, Ibn Kathir reports that
al-Bayhaqi
Abū Bakr Aḥmad ibn Ḥusayn ibn ʿAlī ibn Mūsā al-Khusrawjirdī al-Bayhaqī ( ar, أبو بكر أحمد بن حسين بن علي بن موسى الخسروجردي البيهقي, 994–1066), also known as Imām al-Bayhaqī, was born c. ...
(d. 458/1066) related from
al-Hakim (d. 405/1014), from Abu 'Amr ibn al-Sammak (d. 344/955), from Hanbal
bn Ishaq al-Shaybani
BN, Bn or bn may refer to:
Businesses and organizations
* RTV BN, a Bosnian Serb TV network
* Bangladesh Navy
* Barisan Nasional (also known as "National Front"), a political coalition in Malaysia
* Barnes & Noble, an American specialty retaile ...
(d. 273/886), the son of the brother of Ahmad ibn Hanbal's father, that "Ahmad ibn Hanbal (d. 241/855) figuratively interpreted the word of Allah Most High, ‘And your Lord comes...’
89:22,_as_meaning_‘His_recompense_(thawab.html" ;"title="
89:22, as meaning ‘His recompense (thawab">
89:22, as meaning ‘His recompense (thawab) shall come’." Al-Bayhaqi then said, "This chain of narrators has absolutely nothing wrong in it". Ibn Hazm (d. 456/1064) in his book ' (“The Distinction Concerning Religions, Heresies, and Sects”) said also that Ahmad ibn Hanbal figuratively interpreted ‘And your Lord comes...’ [Q. 89:22], but as meaning "And your Lord's command/decree has come."
Among the most significant Athari theological works are:
* ''Lawami' al-Anwar al-Bahiyya wa Sawati' al-Asrar al-Athariyya'' by
Al-Saffarini (d. 1188/1774).
* ''Bahjat al-Nazirin wa Ayat al-Mustadillin'' (The Delight of Onlookers and the Signs for Investigators) by
Mar'i al-Karmi
Marʻī ibn Yūsuf ibn Abī Bakr Aḥmad al-Karmī ( ar, مرعي بن يوسف بن أبي بكر بن أحمد الكرمي; 1580, Tulkarm – 1624, Cairo), often referred as Marʻī ibn Yūsuf al-Karmī, was a Muslim scholar and one of the mo ...
(d. 1033/1624), on
cosmology
Cosmology () is a branch of physics and metaphysics dealing with the nature of the universe. The term ''cosmology'' was first used in English in 1656 in Thomas Blount (lexicographer), Thomas Blount's ''Glossographia'', and in 1731 taken up in ...
and the affairs of the Last Judgment and the Afterlife.
Ash'aris and Maturidis
Ash'aris and
Maturidis
Māturīdī theology or Māturīdism ( ar, الماتريدية: ''al-Māturīdiyyah'') is one of the main Sunnī schools of Islamic theology, founded by the Persian Muslim scholar, Ḥanafī jurist, reformer (''Mujaddid''), and scholastic th ...
are in agreement that God's attributes are
eternal
Eternal(s) or The Eternal may refer to:
* Eternity, an infinite amount of time, or a timeless state
* Immortality or eternal life
* God, the supreme being, creator deity, and principal object of faith in monotheism
Comics, film and television
* ...
and are to be held to be metaphorically. References to
anthropomorphic
Anthropomorphism is the attribution of human traits, emotions, or intentions to non-human entities. It is considered to be an innate tendency of human psychology.
Personification is the related attribution of human form and characteristics t ...
attributes can probably not be understood correctly by humans.
[Andrew Rippin ''Muslims: Their Religious Beliefs and Practices'' Psychology Press 2005 page 86] Although God's existence is considered to be possibly known by reason, human mind can not fully understand God's attributes. Ash'ari and Maturidi scholars have two positions regarding the
Mutashabihat texts (ambiguous passages in the Qur'an and Hadith) related to God's attributes:
Tafwid
Tafwid ( ar, تفويض) is an Arabic term meaning "relegation" or "delegation", with uses in theology and law.
In theology
In Islamic theology, ''tafwid'' (or ''tafwid al-amr li-llah'', relegation of matters to God) is a doctrine according to ...
(affirming the attributes of God, but consigning/entrusting both their meaning and modality to God, or in other words, leaving the interpretation of anthropomorphic expressions to God) and
Ta'wil
Esoteric interpretation of the Quran ( ar, تأويل, taʾwīl) is the allegorical interpretation of the Quran or the quest for its hidden, inner meanings. The Arabic word ''taʾwīl'' was synonymous with Tafsir, conventional interpretation in i ...
(metaphorical interpretation). The two positions disregard the literal meaning of the texts due to the definitive evidences denoting the transcendence of God above the attributes of his created beings as per his words: and For example, when believers in
paradise
In religion, paradise is a place of exceptional happiness and delight. Paradisiacal notions are often laden with pastoral imagery, and may be cosmogonical or eschatological or both, often compared to the miseries of human civilization: in paradis ...
see God, they do not see God in the way humans are able to see on Earth.
Ash'aris and Maturidis asserts, since God is the creator of everything that exists and creation neither affects nor alters God, the
Throne of God
The Throne of God is the reigning centre of God in the Abrahamic religions: primarily Judaism, Christianity, and Islam. The throne is said by various holy books to reside beyond the Seventh Heaven which is called ''Araboth'' ( ''‘ărāḇōṯ' ...
is not a dwelling place for God.
Abu Mansur al-Baghdadi (d. 429/1037) in his ''
al-Farq bayn al-Firaq
Al-Farq bayn al-Firaq is a book by the Shafi'i scholar Abu Mansur al-Baghdadi (d. 1037 CE) outlining the doctrinal positions of various sects and schisms in Islam. Written as an explanation of the hadith regarding the division of the Muslim umma ...
'' (The Difference between the Sects) reports that
'Ali ibn Abi Talib
ʿAlī ibn Abī Ṭālib ( ar, عَلِيّ بْن أَبِي طَالِب; 600 – 661 CE) was the last of four Rightly Guided Caliphs to rule Islam (r. 656 – 661) immediately after the death of Muhammad, and he was the first Shia Imam. ...
, the fourth Caliph, said: "
Allah
Allah (; ar, الله, translit=Allāh, ) is the common Arabic word for God. In the English language, the word generally refers to God in Islam. The word is thought to be derived by contraction from '' al- ilāh'', which means "the god", an ...
created the Throne as an indication of His power, not for taking it as a place for Himself." Accordingly, expressions such as ''God's istiwa' on the Throne'' means by ta'wil or figurative interpretation, exercise of his power upon the universe, this denotes his assumption of authority of his created world, the throne being a symbol of authority and dominion, while in tafwid, they just say: ''Allahu A'lam'' (God knows best), together with their understanding of
Tanzih
''Tanzih'' ( ar, تنزيه) is an Islamic religious concept meaning transcendence. In Islamic theology
Schools of Islamic theology are various Islamic schools and branches in different schools of thought regarding '' ʿaqīdah'' (creed) ...
(God's incomparability and transcendence), which means that his istiwa' upon the throne, in the manner which he himself has described, and in that same sense which he himself means, which is far removed from any notion of contact, or resting upon, or local situation. It is impermissible to say that he established himself with a contact or a meeting with it. Because God is not subject to change, substitution, nor limits, whether before or after the creation of the throne.
Ash'aris and Maturidis are in general agreement that God is free from all imperfections and flaws. He has Divine attributes. Divine attributes are characteristics or qualities that God alone possesses. The Divine attributes are classified into: negative and positive. By the “Negative Attribute” they mean the negation of the negative, i.e. negation of imperfection. Among the most important are the following:
* The negative divine attributes are of two kinds; firstly those which are meant to deny all imperfections in God's Being, e.g., that he has no equal and no rival, no parents and no children; secondly those which indicate his beyondness, e.g., that he is not body or physical, is neither substance nor attribute, is not space or spatial, is not limited or finite, has neither dimensions nor relations, i.e., he is above the application of our categories of thought.
* The positive divine attributes are such as life, knowledge, power, will, hearing, seeing, and speaking.
The Ash'ari and Maturidi scholars emphasise that the
Qur'an
The Quran (, ; Standard Arabic: , Quranic Arabic: , , 'the recitation'), also romanized Qur'an or Koran, is the central religious text of Islam, believed by Muslims to be a revelation from God. It is organized in 114 chapters (pl.: , sing. ...
expresses that God does not need any of his creation as he is perfect. He is immutable (does not change), self-subsisting and self-sufficient, without figure, form, colour or parts. His existence has neither beginning nor end. He is not a body composed of substances or elements. He is not an accident inherent in a body or dwelling in a place. He is unique, unlike anything in his creation. He is
ineffable
Ineffability is the quality of something that surpasses the capacity of language to express it, often being in the form of a taboo or incomprehensible term. This property is commonly associated with philosophy, aspects of existence, and similar ...
, beyond human understanding, comprehension and therefore human description, as per his words:
He is
omnitemporal
In philosophy, temporality refers to the idea of a linear progression of past, present, and future. The term is frequently used, however, in the context of critiques of commonly held ideas of linear time. In social sciences, temporality is studi ...
in the way that he is
omnipresent
Omnipresence or ubiquity is the property of being present anywhere and everywhere. The term omnipresence is most often used in a religious context as an attribute of a deity or supreme being, while the term ubiquity is generally used to descri ...
, as per his words: He is everywhere by his knowledge and power, and nowhere, without being in a place, direction or location, because He existed eternally before all the creations (including time and space) and is clear from change. He is always in the present, yet transcends time. God is not within time; time is one of his creations and doesn't affect him, so for him there is no past, present and future.
The Hanafi-
Maturidi
Māturīdī theology or Māturīdism ( ar, الماتريدية: ''al-Māturīdiyyah'') is one of the main Sunnī schools of Islamic theology, founded by the Persian Muslim scholar, Ḥanafī jurist, reformer (''Mujaddid''), and scholastic th ...
scholar,
'Ali al-Qari
Nur ad-Din Abu al-Hasan Ali ibn Sultan Muhammad al-Hirawi al-Qari ( ar, نور الدين أبو الحسن علي بن سلطان محمد الهروي القاري; d. 1605/1606), known as Mulla Ali al-Qari () was an Islamic scholar.
He was b ...
(d. 1014/1606) in his ''Sharh
al-Fiqh al-Akbar
''Al-Fiqh al-Akbar'' (Arabic: الفقه الأكبر ) or "The Greater Knowledge" is a popular early Islamic text attributed to the Muslim jurist Abu Hanifa. It is one of the few surviving works of Abu Hanifa. It outlines the foundational arti ...
'' states: "
Allah
Allah (; ar, الله, translit=Allāh, ) is the common Arabic word for God. In the English language, the word generally refers to God in Islam. The word is thought to be derived by contraction from '' al- ilāh'', which means "the god", an ...
the Exalted is not in any place or space, nor is He subject to time, because both time and space are amongst His creations. He the Exalted was present in pre-existence and there was nothing of the creation with Him".
Thus, according to Maturidis and Ash'aris, God is beyond time and space, and is
transcendent,
infinite
Infinite may refer to:
Mathematics
*Infinite set, a set that is not a finite set
*Infinity, an abstract concept describing something without any limit
Music
* Infinite (group), a South Korean boy band
*''Infinite'' (EP), debut EP of American m ...
(not limited) and
eternal
Eternal(s) or The Eternal may refer to:
* Eternity, an infinite amount of time, or a timeless state
* Immortality or eternal life
* God, the supreme being, creator deity, and principal object of faith in monotheism
Comics, film and television
* ...
, without beginning or end, as per his words: A hadith mentioned in
Sahih Muslim
Sahih Muslim ( ar, صحيح مسلم, translit=Ṣaḥīḥ Muslim), group=note is a 9th-century ''hadith'' collection and a book of '' sunnah'' compiled by the Persian scholar Muslim ibn al-Ḥajjāj (815–875). It is one of the most valued bo ...
explains this part of the verse as follows:
At the same time, he is near to everything that has being; nay, he is nearer to men than their jugular veins (this is alluded to in the vers
50:16, and is witness to everything —though his nearness is not like the nearness of bodies, as neither is his essence like the essence of bodies. Neither does he exist in anything or does anything exist in him; but he is beyond space and time; for he is the creator of space and time, and was before space and time were created, and is now after the same manner as He always was (i.e., without place nor time).
He is also distinct from the creatures in his attributes, neither is there anything besides himself in his essence, nor is his essence in any other besides him. He is too holy to be subject to change or any local motion; neither do any accidents dwell in him, nor any contingencies before him; but he abides with his glorious attributes, free from all danger of dissolution. As to the attribute of perfection, he wants no addition. As to being, he is known to exist by the apprehension of the understanding; and he is seen as he is by immediate intuition, which will be vouchsafed out of his mercy and grace to the believers in the paradise, completing their joy by the vision of his glorious presence.
The possibility of seeing God in the afterlife became a pillar of the Ash'ari and the Maturidi schools.
Al-Ash'ari
Abū al-Ḥasan al-Ashʿarī (; full name: ''Abū al-Ḥasan ʿAlī ibn Ismāʿīl ibn Isḥāq al-Ashʿarī''; c. 874–936 CE/260–324 AH), often reverently referred to as Imām al-Ashʿarī by Sunnī Muslims, was an Arab Muslim scholar ...
holds that God will be seen in the next world by sight.
Al-Maturidi
Abū Manṣūr Muḥammad b. Muḥammad b. Maḥmūd al-Ḥanafī al-Māturīdī al-Samarḳandī ( fa, أبو منصور محمد بن محمد بن محمود الماتریدي السمرقندي الحنفي; 853–944 CE), often referred t ...
also accepts the visibility of God, however his explanation is qualified: people will see God in way that it is incomprehensible to humans in this life and is not like the normal sight that we use to sense light and distance.
Al-Ghazali
Al-Ghazali ( – 19 December 1111; ), full name (), and known in Persian-speaking countries as Imam Muhammad-i Ghazali (Persian: امام محمد غزالی) or in Medieval Europe by the Latinized as Algazelus or Algazel, was a Persian polymat ...
promised that people would enjoy the pleasure of looking on God's noble face.
Ash'aris and Maturidis insisted on the reality of that vision even if they admitted their inability to fully explain how it will happen. According to them, God can be seen even if he cannot be perceived through vision. Al-Ghazali in his ''
al-Iqtisad fi al-I'tiqad'' (Moderation in Belief) explains the Ash'ari position that God will be seen in the afterlife despite the fact that he has no physical body, nor any location or direction.
Mu'tazilis
Muʿtazila ( ar, المعتزلة ', English: "Those Who Withdraw, or Stand Apart", and who called themselves ''Ahl al-ʿAdl wa al-Tawḥīd'', English: "Party of ivineJustice and Oneness f God); was an Islamic group that appeared in early Islamic ...
and Shi'is deny that God can be seen for the simple reason that visibility, as man understands it requires the object of vision to be in place and this is inconceivable in reference to God. Ash'aris and Maturidis agree with this proposition, but only if they are talking of vision here on Earth and within the physical laws applicable here. However, if it is going to happen somewhere else and under a different set of laws, visibility is possible, for whatever exists can be seen under proper conditions.
Ash'aris and Maturidis Ijma, unanimously agree that it is only in the Akhirah, Hereafter that God will be seen. Among the evidences that have been used by them in establishing the permissibility of seeing God are the following:
Goodness (or ihsan, husna) is to act in accordance with the wise commandments of God. Muhammad defined it as being a servant to God as though one saw him. The greatest good shall be for them (i.e., Paradise), and also "even more"; the delight of gazing upon the ineffable and blessed Countenance of God.
It was narrated that Suhayb the Roman, Suhayb said:
During the lifetime of Muhammad some people asked:
Muhammad said also in an authentic hadith mentioned in Sahih al-Bukhari,
Sahih Muslim
Sahih Muslim ( ar, صحيح مسلم, translit=Ṣaḥīḥ Muslim), group=note is a 9th-century ''hadith'' collection and a book of '' sunnah'' compiled by the Persian scholar Muslim ibn al-Ḥajjāj (815–875). It is one of the most valued bo ...
, Jami' al-Tirmidhi, Sunan Abi Dawud, and Sunan ibn Majah: "Certainly, you will see your Rubb (on the Day of Resurrection) as you see this (full) moon, and you will have no difficulty (or trouble) in seeing Him."
In addition, the Qur'an also confirms i
83:15that:
Among the most significant Ash'ari-Maturidi theological works are:
* ''Kitab al-Tawhid'' by Abu Mansur al-Maturidi (d. 333/944).
* ''Al-Insaf fima Yajib I'tiqaduh'' by Abu Bakr al-Baqillani (d. 403/1013).
* ''A Guide to Conclusive Proofs for the Principles of Belief'' by Abu al-Ma'ali al-Juwayni (d. 478/1085).
* ''The Moderation in Belief'' by Abu Hamid al-Ghazali (d. 505/1111).
* ''Tabsirat al-Adilla'' by Abu al-Mu'in al-Nasafi (d. 508/1114).
* ''Asas al-Taqdis'' by Fakhr al-Din al-Razi (d. 606/1209).
* The Commentaries on ''Al-'Aqida al-Tahawiyya''.
Sufis
The majority of Sufis adhere to the same beliefs and practices of orthodox theology of Sunni Islam, both the
Ash'ari
Ashʿarī theology or Ashʿarism (; ar, الأشعرية: ) is one of the main Sunnī schools of Islamic theology, founded by the Muslim scholar, Shāfiʿī jurist, reformer, and scholastic theologian Abū al-Ḥasan al-Ashʿarī in the ...
and
Maturidi
Māturīdī theology or Māturīdism ( ar, الماتريدية: ''al-Māturīdiyyah'') is one of the main Sunnī schools of Islamic theology, founded by the Persian Muslim scholar, Ḥanafī jurist, reformer (''Mujaddid''), and scholastic th ...
schools, the essential difference in theology being that Sufis believe ''Ma'iyyat Allah'' (God's presence, togetherness, companionship) – derived from the Qur'anic verse 4 in Surat al-Hadid which states: – is not only by knowledge, comprehension and power, but also by nature and essence, which is God himself, being everywhere by presence. According to Ahmad ibn 'Ajiba (d. 1224/1809) in his ''al-Bahr al-Madid'':
''Ahl al-Batin'' (people of the inner knowledge who follow the Esoteric interpretation of the Quran, esoteric interpretation, i.e., the Sufis) have a Ijma, consensus on that God is everywhere by presence and essence (in all places at once with his entire being despite his spacelessness), but without ''Hulul'' (God's indwelling, fusion/infusion, incarnation in creation) and without ''Ittihad'' (God's identification, unification, union with creation),
unlike ''Ahl al-Zahir'' (people of the outward observance; the uninitiated), who are unanimously agreed that God is
omnipresent
Omnipresence or ubiquity is the property of being present anywhere and everywhere. The term omnipresence is most often used in a religious context as an attribute of a deity or supreme being, while the term ubiquity is generally used to descri ...
only by knowledge and power.
Among the verses that Sufis rely on to prove God's omnipresence are:
[2:115]
(Ayat al-Kursi)
6:3
an
Based on these Qur'anic verses, God's omnipresence is not limited to certain areas, but is present everywhere, all-pervasive, and all-knowing.
According to Muhammad Metwalli al-Sha'rawi (d. 1419/1998) in his interpretation (better known as ) of the Qur'anic verses , which are mentioned in Surat al-Waqi'ah: "83. Why then (are you helpless) when it (i.e., the soul of a dying person at the moment of death) reaches the throat, 84. While you are looking on, 85. And We (i.e., God and/or His angels) are nearer/closer to him (the dying human) than you are, but you do not see."
Al-Sha'rawi stated that God's statement in vers
56:85
"but you do not see" proves clearly and unequivocally that ''Ma'iyyatullah'' (meaning 'companionship of God', literally: 'togetherness with God') is true/real with his essence (dhat), which is not like the essence of created beings, and his companionship is not only with knowledge, if so, then God wouldn't say "but you do not see".
Since God in Islam is transcendental and sovereign but also immanent and omnipresent, the Sufism, Sufi view holds that in reality, only God exists. Thus everything in creation is reflecting an attribute of God's names. Yet these forms are not God themselves. The List of Sufi saints, Sufi Saint Ibn Arabi stated: ''There is nothing but God''. This statement was mistakenly equalized to Pantheism by critics; however, Ibn Arabi always made a clear distinction between the creation and the creator. Since God is the ''Absolute (philosophy), Absolute Reality'',
the created worlds and their inhabitants are merely illusions. They just exist because of God's command ''Kun (Islamic term), Kun'', but everything that would be, was already known by God.
Both beliefs Hulul (incarnation) and Ittihad (unification) had been severely denounced by moderate Sunni Sufis, such as 'Abd al-Ghani al-Nabulsi (d. 1143/1731), which he described as heresies.
Among the most significant Sufi theological works are:
* ''Al-Ta'aruf li-Madhhab Ahl al-Tasawwuf'' (Inquiry into the Tenets of the Sufis) by Abu Bakr al-Kalabadhi (d. 385/995), recognised as an authoritative treatise on the mystical doctrines.
* ''Al-Risala al-Qushayriyya'' by al-Qushayri (d. 465/1072).
* ''Futuh al-Ghayb'' (Revelations of the Unseen) by 'Abd al-Qadir al-Jilani (d. 561/1166).
* ''Al-Burhan al-Mu'ayyad'' (The Advocated Proof) by Ahmad al-Rifa'i (d. 578/1182).
Mu'tazilis
The Muʿtazila, Mu'tazilis reject the anthropomorphic
Anthropomorphism is the attribution of human traits, emotions, or intentions to non-human entities. It is considered to be an innate tendency of human psychology.
Personification is the related attribution of human form and characteristics t ...
attributes of God because an eternal being "must be unique" and attributes would make God comparable. The descriptions of God in the Quran
The Quran (, ; Standard Arabic: , Classical Arabic, Quranic Arabic: , , 'the recitation'), also romanized Qur'an or Koran, is the central religious text of Islam, believed by Muslims to be a revelation in Islam, revelation from God in Islam, ...
are considered to be allegory, allegories. Nevertheless, the Muʿtazilites thought God contains oneness (tawhid) and justice. Other characteristics like knowledge are not attributed to God; rather they describe his essence. Otherwise eternal attributes of God would give rise to a multiplicity entities existing eternal besides God.
Among the most significant Mu'tazili theological works are:
* ''Sharh al-Usul al-Khamsa'' (Explaining the Five Principles) by al-Qadi 'Abd al-Jabbar (d. 415/1025).
* ''Al-Minhaj fi Usul al-Din'' (The Curriculum/Method in the Fundamentals of Religion) by al-Zamakhshari (d. 538/1144).
Shi'is
The Shi'is agreed with the Mu'tazilis
Muʿtazila ( ar, المعتزلة ', English: "Those Who Withdraw, or Stand Apart", and who called themselves ''Ahl al-ʿAdl wa al-Tawḥīd'', English: "Party of ivineJustice and Oneness f God); was an Islamic group that appeared in early Islamic ...
and deny that God will be seen with the physical eyes either in this world or in the next.
Isma'ilis
According to Isma'ilism, God is absolutely transcendent and unknowable; beyond matter, energy, space, time, change, imaginings, intellect, positive as well as negative qualities. All attributes of God named in rituals, scriptures or prayers refers not to qualities God possesses, but to qualities emanated from God, thus these are the attributes God gave as the source of all qualities, but God does not consist on one of these qualities. One philosophical definition of the world Allah is " The Being Who concentrates in Himself all the attributes of perfection " or " the Person Who is the Essential Being, and Who encompasses all the attributes of perfection". Since God is beyond all wordings, Isma'ilism also denies the concept of God as the Unmoved mover, first cause.
In Isma'ilism, Ismailism, assigning attributes to God as well as negating any attributes from God (''Apophatic theology, via negativa'') both qualify as anthropomorphism
Anthropomorphism is the attribution of human traits, emotions, or intentions to non-human entities. It is considered to be an innate tendency of human psychology.
Personification is the related attribution of human form and characteristics t ...
and are rejected, as God cannot be understood by either assigning attributes to him or taking attributes away from him. The 10th-century Ismaili philosopher Abu Yaqub al-Sijistani suggested the method of double negation; for example: “God is not existent” followed by “God is not non-existent”. This glorifies God from any understanding or human comprehension.
Twelvers
The Twelver Shi'is believe that God has no shape, no physical hand, no physical leg, no physical body, no physical face. They believe God has no visible appearance. God does not change in time, nor does he occupy a physical place. Under no circumstances, the Shi'is argues, does God change. There is also no time frame regarding God. As support for their view, Shi'i scholars often point to the Qur'anic vers
6:103
which states: "Eyes comprehend Him not, but He comprehends all eyes. He is the All-Subtle (penetrating everything no matter how small), the All-Aware." Thus one fundamental difference between Sunnis and Shi'is that the former believes that followers will “see” their Lord on the Day of Resurrection, while the latter holds that God cannot be seen because he is beyond space and time.
Among the most significant Shi'i theological works are:
* ''Kitab al-Tawhid'' (Book of Monotheism) by Ibn Babawayh – also known as al-Shaykh al-Saduq – (d. 381 H/991).
* ''Tajrid al-I'tiqad'' (Sublimation of Belief) by Nasir al-Din al-Tusi (d. 672/1274).
Wahdat al-wujud
The term ''wahdat al-wujud'' which literally means "''the unity of being''" or "''the oneness of existence''" is a controversial mystical notion mostly spoken of in connection with Ibn 'Arabi (d. 638/1240), even though he did not employ it in his writings. It seems to have been ascribed to him for the first time in the polemics of Ibn Taymiyya
Ibn Taymiyyah (January 22, 1263 – September 26, 1328; ar, ابن تيمية), birth name Taqī ad-Dīn ʾAḥmad ibn ʿAbd al-Ḥalīm ibn ʿAbd al-Salām al-Numayrī al-Ḥarrānī ( ar, تقي الدين أحمد بن عبد الحليم ...
(d. 1328).
Although the phrase refers to a subjective state or direct, inward experience attained by Sufis, it has also been understood and discussed as a philosophical concept and, as such, interpreted in different ways. According to William Chittick, there are at least as many as seven possible ways of understanding it, depending on whether the person who uses it is pro or anti-Ibn 'Arabi. Some suggest that the idea of wahdat al-wujud can be understood in an ecological or environmental context. In this sense it would mean the feeling of wholeness and holyness of the universe as the creation of God, which means that all men are the creatures of one God — they are all equal.
Ibn 'Arabi, however, has always been a highly controversial figure for Muslims, as many have accused him of holding pantheist or monist views incompatible with Tawhid, Islam's pure monotheism. However, according to a number of scholars including al-Sha'rani (d. 573/1565) and 'Abd al-Ra'uf al-Munawi (d. 1031/1621), the books of Ibn 'Arabi have been altered and distorted by some anonymous apostates and heretics, and therefore many sayings and beliefs were attributed to him, which are not true to what he actually wrote.
Proponents of waḥdat al-wujūd such as 'Abd al-Ghani al-Nabulsi, Abd al-Rauf al-Sinkili, 'Abd al-Ra'uf b. 'Ali al-Fansuri, Seyyed Hossein Nasr, and Titus Burckhardt disagree that waḥdat al-wujūd is identified with pantheism. Nasr, for example, considers that the term pantheism and monism cannot be used to equate with waḥdat al-wujūd. Ideas similar to pantheism existed since the early stages of Islam. Jahm writes that God is "in heaven, on earth and in every place; there is no place where He i not (...)" and "He is in everything, neither contaguous nor separated.", a position attacked by Ahmad ibn Hanbal.[Morris S. Seale ''Muslim Theology A study of Origins with Reference to the Church Fathers'' Great Russel Street, London 1964 p. 62]
Notes
See also
* Attributes of God in Islam
* Conceptions of God
* Ethical monotheism
* Existence of God
* God in Abrahamic religions
The concept of God in Abrahamic religions is centred on monotheism. The three major monotheistic religions of Judaism, Christianity, and Islam, alongside the Baháʼí Faith, Samaritanism, Druze, and Rastafari, are all regarded as Abrahamic reli ...
** God in the Baháʼí Faith
** God in Christianity
** God in Judaism
** God in Mormonism
** Jehovah's Witnesses beliefs#God, Jehovah's Witnesses beliefs § God
* Religion in pre-Islamic Arabia
References
Bibliography
* Al-Bayhaqi (1999), ''Allah's Names and Attributes'', ISCA,
* Hulusi, Ahmed (1999), ''"Allah" as introduced by Mohammed'', Kitsan, 10th ed.,
* Muhaiyaddeen, M. R. Bawa (1976), ''Asmāʼul-Husnā: the 99 beautiful names of Allah'', The Bawa Muhaiyaddeen Fellowship,
* Netton, Ian Richard (1994), ''Allah Transcendent: Studies in the Structure and Semiotics of Islamic Philosophy, Theology and Cosmology'', Routledge,
External links
Allah
— by ''Encyclopædia Britannica
The (Latin for "British Encyclopædia") is a general knowledge English-language encyclopaedia. It is published by Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.; the company has existed since the 18th century, although it has changed ownership various time ...
''
Belief in God, Allah
— by ''Al-Azhar''
* — by ''Musharraf Hussain''
{{DEFAULTSORT:God In Islam
God in Islam,
Islam
Islamic theology