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Aleksandar Komulović (1548 – 11 June 1608) was a
Catholic The Catholic Church, also known as the Roman Catholic Church, is the largest Christian church, with 1.3 billion baptized Catholics worldwide . It is among the world's oldest and largest international institutions, and has played a ...
priest and diplomat from
Venetian Dalmatia Venetian Dalmatia ( la, Dalmatia Veneta) refers to parts of Dalmatia under the rule of the Republic of Venice, mainly from the 15th to the 18th centuries. Dalmatia was first sold to Venice in 1409 but Venetian Dalmatia was not fully consolidated f ...
(now
Croatia , image_flag = Flag of Croatia.svg , image_coat = Coat of arms of Croatia.svg , anthem = "Lijepa naša domovino"("Our Beautiful Homeland") , image_map = , map_caption = , capit ...
). Part of the
Counter-Reformation The Counter-Reformation (), also called the Catholic Reformation () or the Catholic Revival, was the period of Catholic resurgence that was initiated in response to the Protestant Reformation. It began with the Council of Trent (1545–1563) a ...
, and an early
Pan-Slavist Pan-Slavism, a movement which crystallized in the mid-19th century, is the political ideology concerned with the advancement of integrity and unity for the Slavic people. Its main impact occurred in the Balkans, where non-Slavic empires had ruled ...
, he notably led a diplomatic mission aimed to forge an anti-Ottoman coalition in support of the West during the
Long Turkish War The Long Turkish War or Thirteen Years' War was an indecisive land war between the Habsburg monarchy and the Ottoman Empire, primarily over the Principalities of Wallachia, Transylvania, and Moldavia. It was waged from 1593 to 1606 but in Europ ...
, principally in the Balkans and among the Slavs. Although he failed his mission, he inspired the
Serbs The Serbs ( sr-Cyr, Срби, Srbi, ) are the most numerous South Slavic ethnic group native to the Balkans in Southeastern Europe, who share a common Serbian ancestry, culture, history and language. The majority of Serbs live in their na ...
to revolt. The Papacy was aware that the Latin language of the liturgical books presented an obstacle for the conversion of the
South Slavs South Slavs are Slavic peoples who speak South Slavic languages and inhabit a contiguous region of Southeast Europe comprising the eastern Alps and the Balkan Peninsula. Geographically separated from the West Slavs and East Slavs by Austria, Hu ...
from Islam and Orthodoxy to Catholicism. Komulović belonged to the first group of
Jesuit , image = Ihs-logo.svg , image_size = 175px , caption = ChristogramOfficial seal of the Jesuits , abbreviation = SJ , nickname = Jesuits , formation = , founders ...
missionaries and authors who attempted to spread Catholicism among the Slavs using liturgical books in Slavic. After his death, his propaganda activities were continued by
Bartol Kašić Bartol Kašić ( la, Bartholomaeus Cassius, it, Bartolomeo Cassio; August 15, 1575 – December 28, 1650) was a Jesuit clergyman and grammarian during the Counter-Reformation, who wrote the first Illyrian grammar and translated the Bible and t ...
.


Early life

Komulović was born into a
patrician Patrician may refer to: * Patrician (ancient Rome), the original aristocratic families of ancient Rome, and a synonym for "aristocratic" in modern English usage * Patrician (post-Roman Europe), the governing elites of cities in parts of medieval ...
family which was referred to in Papal and Venetian documents as Comolis or Comulis in
Split Split(s) or The Split may refer to: Places * Split, Croatia, the largest coastal city in Croatia * Split Island, Canada, an island in the Hudson Bay * Split Island, Falkland Islands * Split Island, Fiji, better known as Hạfliua Arts, enterta ...
, in
Venetian Dalmatia Venetian Dalmatia ( la, Dalmatia Veneta) refers to parts of Dalmatia under the rule of the Republic of Venice, mainly from the 15th to the 18th centuries. Dalmatia was first sold to Venice in 1409 but Venetian Dalmatia was not fully consolidated f ...
(today
Croatia , image_flag = Flag of Croatia.svg , image_coat = Coat of arms of Croatia.svg , anthem = "Lijepa naša domovino"("Our Beautiful Homeland") , image_map = , map_caption = , capit ...
). He finished high school, probably in Italy. Komulović was familiar with the
Church Slavonic language Church Slavonic (, , literally "Church-Slavonic language"), also known as Church Slavic, New Church Slavonic or New Church Slavic, is the conservative Slavic liturgical language used by the Eastern Orthodox Church in Belarus, Bosnia and Herzeg ...
and the
Glagolitic script The Glagolitic script (, , ''glagolitsa'') is the oldest known Slavic alphabet. It is generally agreed to have been created in the 9th century by Saint Cyril, a monk from Thessalonica. He and his brother Saint Methodius were sent by the Byzan ...
. He was married with a woman from Dubrovnik.


Society, school and church of Saint Jerome

In 1576 Komulović became a member of the
Society of Saint Jerome The Pontifical Croatian College of St. Jerome ( hr, Papinski hrvatski zavod svetog Jeronima; it, Pontificio Collegio Croato Di San Girolamo a Roma; la, Pontificium Collegium Croaticum Sancti Hieronymi) is a Catholic college, church and a society ...
in Rome. In 1579 he was excluded from the Society because he was accused of activities against the order. He was in the service of Cardinal Iullus Antonius Santor and wrote a Slavic-language
catechism A catechism (; from grc, κατηχέω, "to teach orally") is a summary or exposition of doctrine and serves as a learning introduction to the Sacraments traditionally used in catechesis, or Christian religious teaching of children and adult c ...
, which he attempted to get printed in autumn 1579. In 1582 he was again accepted into the Order of Saint Jerome because it was shown that the accusations against him were unjustified. In the same year the Society financed the publishing of Komulović's work ''Christian Doctrine for the Slavic People in Their Own Language'' ("Nauch Charstianschiza Slovignschi narod, v vlaasti iazich" or it, Dottrina Christiana per la nation Illirica nella propria lingua). This work established Komulović's reputation, especially among the Catholics of the Ottoman Empire. In 1584 Komulović was
canon Canon or Canons may refer to: Arts and entertainment * Canon (fiction), the conceptual material accepted as official in a fictional universe by its fan base * Literary canon, an accepted body of works considered as high culture ** Western ca ...
in
Zadar Zadar ( , ; historically known as Zara (from Venetian and Italian: ); see also other names), is the oldest continuously inhabited Croatian city. It is situated on the Adriatic Sea, at the northwestern part of Ravni Kotari region. Zadar serv ...
, and in the same year, as an abbot in Nin, became a rector of the Academy of Saint Jerome, formerly known as St. Jerome of the Slavs ( it, San Girolamo degli " Schiavoni") or the Illyrian Academy. He was appointed as the first arch-priest of the Church of Saint Jerome, completed in 1589.


Secret Anti-Ottoman missions (1593–97)

At the end of January 1593 a bishop from Hvar sent a letter to the Pope inviting him to send envoys to Russia to forge a united Christian coalition against the Ottomans. In the same year a similar proposal was sent to the Pope by Komulović himself. An anonymous report from 1593, attributed to Komulović by many scholars, lists predominantly Slavic regions that could be mobilized to fight the Ottomans:
Herzegovina Herzegovina ( or ; sh-Latn-Cyrl, Hercegovina, separator=" / ", Херцеговина, ) is the southern and smaller of two main geographical region of Bosnia and Herzegovina, the other being Bosnia. It has never had strictly defined geogra ...
, Slavonia, Croatia, Dalmatia, Serbia, Moesia,
Bosnia Bosnia and Herzegovina ( sh, / , ), abbreviated BiH () or B&H, sometimes called Bosnia–Herzegovina and often known informally as Bosnia, is a country at the crossroads of south and southeast Europe, located in the Balkans. Bosnia and He ...
, Rascia, Požega and Temeşvar. In 1593–97 Komulović was a Papal diplomat engaged in forging a coalition of Slavs against the
Ottoman Empire The Ottoman Empire, * ; is an archaic version. The definite article forms and were synonymous * and el, Оθωμανική Αυτοκρατορία, Othōmanikē Avtokratoria, label=none * info page on book at Martin Luther University) ...
. This coalition was to include all Christian Slavs, including Orthodox
Russia Russia (, , ), or the Russian Federation, is a List of transcontinental countries, transcontinental country spanning Eastern Europe and North Asia, Northern Asia. It is the List of countries and dependencies by area, largest country in the ...
. Komulović believed that all
Slavs Slavs are the largest European ethnolinguistic group. They speak the various Slavic languages, belonging to the larger Balto-Slavic branch of the Indo-European languages. Slavs are geographically distributed throughout northern Eurasia, main ...
are one nation who speak one language with different dialects. He also believed that Slavs should have only one religion, Catholicism. In 1594
Pope Clement VIII Pope Clement VIII ( la, Clemens VIII; it, Clemente VIII; 24 February 1536 – 3 March 1605), born Ippolito Aldobrandini, was head of the Catholic Church and ruler of the Papal States from 2 February 1592 to his death in March 1605. Born ...
sent a secret diplomatic mission led by Komulović to forge a coalition against the Ottoman Empire. Komulović traveled via
Venice Venice ( ; it, Venezia ; vec, Venesia or ) is a city in northeastern Italy and the capital of the Veneto Regions of Italy, region. It is built on a group of 118 small islands that are separated by canals and linked by over 400  ...
, Trent,
Innsbruck Innsbruck (; bar, Innschbruck, label=Bavarian language, Austro-Bavarian ) is the capital of Tyrol (state), Tyrol and the List of cities and towns in Austria, fifth-largest city in Austria. On the Inn (river), River Inn, at its junction with the ...
and
Vienna en, Viennese , iso_code = AT-9 , registration_plate = W , postal_code_type = Postal code , postal_code = , timezone = CET , utc_offset = +1 , timezone_DST ...
to
Alba Iulia Alba Iulia (; german: Karlsburg or ''Carlsburg'', formerly ''Weißenburg''; hu, Gyulafehérvár; la, Apulum) is a city that serves as the seat of Alba County in the west-central part of Romania. Located on the Mureș River in the historical ...
. The purpose of this trip was to convince the
Tsar of Russia This is a list of all reigning monarchs in the history of Russia. It includes the princes of medieval Rus′ state (both centralised, known as Kievan Rus', Kievan Rus′ and feudal, when the political center moved northeast to Grand Duke of Vl ...
, King of Poland (including
Zaporozhian Cossacks The Zaporozhian Cossacks, Zaporozhian Cossack Army, Zaporozhian Host, (, or uk, Військо Запорізьке, translit=Viisko Zaporizke, translit-std=ungegn, label=none) or simply Zaporozhians ( uk, Запорожці, translit=Zaporoz ...
), the Prince of Transylvania and Voivodes of Moldavia and Wallachia to join a western anti-Ottoman coalition. His aim was also to inspire
Serbs The Serbs ( sr-Cyr, Срби, Srbi, ) are the most numerous South Slavic ethnic group native to the Balkans in Southeastern Europe, who share a common Serbian ancestry, culture, history and language. The majority of Serbs live in their na ...
to rise up against the Ottomans. According to some sources he continued his journey to Jakin,
Hvar Hvar (; Chakavian: ''Hvor'' or ''For'', el, Φάρος, Pharos, la, Pharia, it, Lesina) is a Croatian island in the Adriatic Sea, located off the Dalmatian coast, lying between the islands of Brač, Vis and Korčula. Approximately long, wi ...
, Dubrovnik, Albania, Kosovo, Macedonia, Bulgaria and finally Moldavia. Komulović was instructed to first travel to Venice to establish contacts with
Albanians The Albanians (; sq, Shqiptarët ) are an ethnic group and nation native to the Balkan Peninsula who share a common Albanian ancestry, culture, history and language. They primarily live in Albania, Kosovo, North Macedonia, Montenegro, Se ...
. In Venice he stayed in the house of notable Thomasso Pelessa from Albania; it was agreed upon that as soon as the Vatican, Poland or Russia declared war on the Ottomans, the Albanian tribes were to revolt. The Popes instructions and several letters Komulović had sewed in a cushion. When he left Venice he made tremendous mistake and forgot the cushion leaving behind three letters written in ''lingua Serviana'' by the "people of Albania". The Venetian authorities got in possession of those letters and concluded they were forged by Komulović, which is also believed by modern Australian historian Zdenko Zlatar. In July 1594, an assembly was summoned in a monastery in Mat, by Albanian tribal chieftains, joined by some Venetian subjects, of whom Mark Gjin was elected their leader. In 1595 he visited Rome to receive the Pope's support. In Pope Clement VIII's instructions to Komulović, the Serbs were explicitly praised as brave, while the neighbouring Bulgarians were said to be unwilling to fight. It is possible that these instructions were composed by Komulović himself. Komulović and Giovanni Battista from
Cres Cres (; dlm, Crepsa, vec, Cherso, it, Cherso, la, Crepsa, Greek language, Greek: Χέρσος, ''Chersos'') is an Adriatic island in Croatia. It is one of the northern islands in the Kvarner Gulf and can be reached via ferry from Rijeka, ...
maintained extensive contacts with the
Patriarchate of Peć Patriarchate of Peć may refer to: * Patriarchate of Peć (monastery), Eastern Orthodox Patriarchal Monastery of the Serbian Orthodox Church, near the city of Peć * Serbian Patriarchate of Peć The Serbian Patriarchate of Peć ( sr, Српс ...
. Another member of Komulović's mission was Thommaso Raggio (1531–1599), who returned to Italy in 1595 while Komulović stayed in the Balkans until 1597 and submitted a detailed report to the Pope upon his return. He travelled to Moscow and twice visited the court of the Russian emperor, in 1595 and in 1597, but failed to convince the Muscovites to accept his proposals. Komulović did not succeed in forming the anti-Ottoman coalition, as none of the countries accepted the Pope's invitation. Russia refused to participate using bad relation with Poland as justification. Still, the mission inspired a series of uprisings in Serb-populated territories, such as the
Uprising in Banat The Uprising in Banat was a rebellion organized and led by Serbian Orthodox bishop Teodor of Vršac and Sava Temišvarac against the Ottomans in the Eyalet of Temeşvar. The uprising broke out in 1594, in the initial stage of the Long Turkish ...
and Uprising in Peć in 1594. In 1594 and 1595 Cossacks plundered Ottoman-held Moldavia and invaded Transylvania. The Himara Revolt broke out in Albania in 1596, but it was easily suppressed after the Venetians convinced some of the chieftains not to join the rebellion. According to some rumours, the
Republic of Ragusa hr, Sloboda se ne prodaje za sve zlato svijeta it, La libertà non si vende nemmeno per tutto l'oro del mondo"Liberty is not sold for all the gold in the world" , population_estimate = 90 000 in the XVI Century , currency = ...
was ready to expel Komulović because the Ottomans offered them some benefits if they did. Ragusans were worried because of the anti-Ottoman actions of Ragusan Jesuits. In 1597 Komulović began his return journey and stopped in Prague to propose to
Emperor Rudolf II Rudolf II (18 July 1552 – 20 January 1612) was Holy Roman Emperor (1576–1612), King of Hungary and Croatia (as Rudolf I, 1572–1608), King of Bohemia (1575–1608/1611) and Archduke of Austria (1576–1608). He was a member of the Hous ...
to re-capture Klis, which had a year earlier been briefly captured by the
Uskoks The Uskoks ( hr, Uskoci, , singular: ; notes on naming) were irregular soldiers in Habsburg Croatia that inhabited areas on the eastern Adriatic coast and surrounding territories during the Ottoman wars in Europe. Bands of Uskoks fought a g ...
.


Career

In 1603 Komulović published a translation of the ''Short Catechism'' written by Roberto Bellarmina in the South Slavic dialect of
Čakavian Chakavian or Čakavian (, , , sh-Latn, čakavski proper name: or own name: ''čokovski, čakavski, čekavski'') is a South Slavic regiolect or language spoken primarily by Croats along the Adriatic coast, in the historical regions of Dalmat ...
(which however, was not suitable for Štokavian speakers, including those of Dubrovnik), the first of many translations he published. In period 1604–1608 Komulovic was а leader of the newly established jesuit society in Dubrovnik. The only allowance Komulović received in this period was modest income from the small abbey from Nin. Before he died in Dubrovnik in 1608, Komulović wrote a will in
Italian Italian(s) may refer to: * Anything of, from, or related to the people of Italy over the centuries ** Italians, an ethnic group or simply a citizen of the Italian Republic or Italian Kingdom ** Italian language, a Romance language *** Regional Ita ...
in which he left his money to the Illyrian Academy in
Rome , established_title = Founded , established_date = 753 BC , founder = King Romulus (legendary) , image_map = Map of comune of Rome (metropolitan city of Capital Rome, region Lazio, Italy).svg , map_caption ...
to buy a
printing press A printing press is a mechanical device for applying pressure to an inked surface resting upon a printing, print medium (such as paper or cloth), thereby transferring the ink. It marked a dramatic improvement on earlier printing methods in wh ...
for publishing books in Serbocroatian (''lingua illirica'').
Jerolim Kavanjin Jerolim Kavanjin (Italian: Girolamo Cavagnini) (4 February 1641 – 29 November 1714) was a Croatian language poet from Split then in Republic of Venice, today in Croatia. He was born into a wealthy and noble family of Split, as a descendant of ...
praised Komulović for presenting Christian doctrine on Slavic language better than anyone prior. After Komulović's death, the Jesuit mission he led was temporarily cancelled. His propaganda activities were continued by
Bartol Kašić Bartol Kašić ( la, Bartholomaeus Cassius, it, Bartolomeo Cassio; August 15, 1575 – December 28, 1650) was a Jesuit clergyman and grammarian during the Counter-Reformation, who wrote the first Illyrian grammar and translated the Bible and t ...
, who was an even greater Pan-Slav than Komulović. Kašić was a censor and editor of Komulovićs work ''Zrcalo od Ispovijesti'', published in 1606 and republished in Rome in 1616 and in Venice in 1664 and 1704.


Bibliography

Notable works of Aleksandar Komulović include: * 1582 — ''Christian Doctrine for the Slavic People in Their Own Language'' ("Nauch Charstianschiza Slovignschi narod, v vlaasti iazich" or it, Dottrina Christiana per la nation Illirica nella propria lingua) * 1603 — Translation of ''Short Catechism'' written by Roberto Bellarmina * 1606 — Zrcalo od ispovjesti, published in Venice, republished in Venice in 1704


References


Sources

* * * *


Further reading

* Aleksandar Komulović (1548–1608), Miroslav Vanino, Hrvatsko kulturno društvo "Napredak", Sarajevo, 1935 * Aleksandar Komulović kao mogući uzor Jurju Križaniću u politici i crkvenom jedinstvu, Tonči Trstenjak, Zbornik Zavoda za povijesne znanosti Istraživačkog centra Jugoslavenske akademije znanosti i umjetnosti. Vol. 14(1986) : posvećen Jurju Križaniću povodom 300. obljetnice smrti, 1683–1983, urednik Ljubo Boban * Komulovića izvještaj i listovi o poslanstvu njegovu u Tursku, Erdelj, Moldavsku i Poljsku, Paul Pierling i Franjo Rački, Starine. Knj. 14(1882) * La dimensione morale nella dottrina pastorale di Alessandro Komulović, Antun Trstenjak. – Zagreb, 1988 * Prilozi k poznavanju diplomatskoga poslanstva Aleksandra Komulovića medju Slovene od godine 1593. do 1597, Euzebije Fermendžin, Starine. Knj. 36(1918), uredio Ferdo Šišić {{DEFAULTSORT:Komulovic, Aleksandar 1548 births 1608 deaths Diplomats of the Holy See Republic of Venice nobility Pan-Slavism Republic of Venice clergy Venetian Jesuits Clergy from Split, Croatia Ragusan clergy 16th-century Jesuits 17th-century Jesuits Venetian Slavs