The Alameda whipsnake (''Masticophis lateralis euryxanthus''), also known as the Alameda striped racer, is a threatened species of colubrid snake distinguishable by its broad head, large eyes, black and orange coloring with a yellow stripe down each side, and slender neck. The California whipsnake is found in California's northern and coastal chaparral. The Alameda whipsnake is a wary creature known for its speed and climbing abilities utilized when escaping predators or hunting prey. In winter months, the Alameda whipsnake hibernates in rock crevices and rodent burrows.
Since 1992, the Alameda whipsnakes have been eliminated from 35 of 60 historical localities. The snake was first collected by Archie Mossman and later described by Riemer in 1954. Unlike the major species, the California Whipsnake, the Alameda Whipsnake has been reduced to just five areas with little or no interchange due to habitat loss, alteration, and fragmentation. The biggest threat to the Alameda Whipsnake is human development in the snake's habitat. Urban sprawl is increasing at a rapid rate, and introducing the snake to direct alteration like construction of development, and indirect like pets and public recreation.
The
California Environmental Quality Act
The California Environmental Quality Act (CEQA) is a California statute passed in 1970 and signed in to law by then-Governor Ronald Reagan, shortly after the United States federal government passed the National Environmental Policy Act (NEPA), t ...
and
California Endangered Species Act
In 1970 California became one of the first states in the U.S. to implement an act that conserves and protects endangered species and their environments. The California Endangered Species Act (CESA) declares that "all native species of fishes, amph ...
afforded the Alameda whipsnake some conservation benefits prior to the federal listing, but these laws by themselves were far from adequate to protect the species. The listing of the Alameda whipsnake as a federally threatened species increases the ability of public land agencies to promote conservation and management plans that take into consideration the specialized environmental and biological needs of this snake.
Behavior
Diet
The Alameda whipsnake is a
diurnal ectotherm
An ectotherm (from the Greek () "outside" and () "heat") is an organism in which internal physiological sources of heat are of relatively small or of quite negligible importance in controlling body temperature.Davenport, John. Animal Life a ...
that is often seen foraging in the daytime. As it searches for food, the head and the front half of the body are held off of the ground for the most optimal vision to find prey. The snake has two seasonal peaks in activity, one during the spring mating season and the other during late summer or early fall. In the spring, males tend to forage and search for mates while females stay in hibernation. Female peak activity only tends to be a few days in the spring when they are looking for egg laying sites. When the Alameda striped racer finds prey, such as the Western fence lizard (''
Sceloporus occidentalis
The western fence lizard (''Sceloporus occidentalis'') is a common lizard of Arizona, New Mexico, California, Idaho, Nevada, Oregon, Utah, Washington, Northern Mexico, and the surrounding area. As the ventral abdomen of an adult is characteristi ...
'') or the Western skink (''
Eumeces skiltonianus
The western skink ''(Plestiodon skiltonianus)'' is a species of small, smooth- scaled lizard with relatively small limbs. It measures about 100 to 210 mm (about 4 to 8.25 inches) in total length (body + tail). It is one of seven species of l ...
''), it takes the prey quickly, holds it tight under the loops of its body, and swallows it whole without constriction. Alameda whipsnakes are great climbers and are able to quickly move through trees and shrubs to hunt prey or escape predators (US Fish and Wildlife 2006).
Reproduction
Courtship and mating are observed from late March through mid-June. During this time, males move around throughout their home ranges, but females appear to remain at or near their
hibernacula, where mating occurs. Female egg laying sites are typically located in grasslands with scattered shrub habitat. Copulation commences soon after emergence from winter hibernacula (Swaim 1994). Females begin laying eggs in mid-late May. Average clutch size is just greater than 7 eggs with a significant correlation between body size and clutch size (Goldberg 1975). Once the female lays her eggs, it will be about 3 months of incubation before the young appear in the late summer and into the fall (US Fish and Wildlife Service 2002).
Life history
The Alameda whipsnake is an
ectotherm
An ectotherm (from the Greek () "outside" and () "heat") is an organism in which internal physiological sources of heat are of relatively small or of quite negligible importance in controlling body temperature.Davenport, John. Animal Life a ...
. It might first emerge by sliding its head out of its burrow into the sun. Then it will bask its whole body until its temperature is 91.4-93.4°F. It has two annual peaks in activity. The first extends from March, when it leaves its hibernaculum, until mid-June, following courtship and mating. Hatchlings have been located during the second smaller peak in activity, from August through November. Afterwards, like mature snakes, they will seek out a hibernaculum for winter hibernation. Alameda whipsnakes require 2–3 years to reach maturity, may live for eight years, and can reach a length of five feet. The Alameda whipsnake's home range may have one or more core areas and specific retreats. They are good climbers, and are able to escape into scrub or trees (US Fish and Wildlife 2006).
Description and physiology
Adults reach a length of . Their back is colored sooty black or dark brown with a distinct yellow-orange stripe down each side. The front part of the Alameda whipsnake's underside is orange-rufous colored; however, the midsection is cream colored, and the rear section and tail are pinkish. The Alameda whipsnake is a slender, fast-moving, diurnal snake with a broad head, large eyes, and slender neck.
Habitat and distribution
Historical range
The whipsnake once had a continuous range in the inner Coast Ranges in western and central Contra Costa and Alameda counties (California) which is now fragmented into five populations (US Fish and Wildlife Service 1997).
Present population size and range
The Alameda whipsnake population has been fragmented into five mostly isolated subpopulations whose numbers are unknown, but which are certain to be rapidly declining as suitable habitat is lost to urban development. Little population abundance data exists for the Alameda whipsnake. Almost all trapping studies targeting this species have been designed to determine presence or absence for regulatory purposes and assessing impacts to potential habitat. As such, monitoring is most often habitat based; assuming snake abundance is positively correlated with the amount of coastal scrub or chaparral vegetation and rock lands present.
The Alameda whipsnake is non-migratory, so distribution is not large. The current distribution has been fragmented into five populations; the Tilden-Briones, Oakland-Las Trampas, and Mount Diablo-Black Hills populations in Contra Costa County, the Hayward-Pleasanton Ridge population in Alameda County, and the Sunol-Cedar Mountain population largely in Alameda County with extensions into San Joaquin and Santa Clara Counties, with little to no interaction between the populations. It is estimated that the snakes go no more than 1 mile away from core coastal shrub habitat.
This species inhabits a variety of different chaparral, which includes vegetation composed of broad-leaved evergreen shrubs, bushes, and small trees usually less than 2.5 m. The cover is typically dense and dry during the striped racer's peak activity. Although this is where they reside, they forage in other communities in the inner Coast Range, like grasslands, pond and stream edges, and woodlands. Rock outcrops are favorable whipsnake habitats as well, as they provide dens, refuge for predators, and cool areas to escape from excessive heat. Whipsnake prey is also abundant in rocky outcrops, giving the snake plenty of foraging opportunity. The habitat must be a good mix of sunny and shady sites, partially open shrubland, and foraging sites for the whipsnake to meet its biological needs.
Human impact and major threats
The most significant threat to the Alameda whipsnake is human impact. Approximately, 60 percent of the snake's habitat is owned by the public. One of the major threats to the Alameda whipsnake is habitat loss as a result of urban expansion. Road and highway construction has been increasing, making the snake even more vulnerable of extinction. Even if urban development is not directly ruining the habitat, adjacent development can have a major impact as well. Being near humans can increase the likelihood of being hunted by feral pets, or killed by the public in recreation activities. Another human impact is fire suppression efforts, as it can alter habitat in two significant ways. It increases the chances of catastrophic fires in overgrown habitat, and would result in a buildup of flammable fuel in the shrubland. Also, fire suppression can reduce biodiversity of the habitat the snake requires. Pest control efforts near protected habitat also introduces rodenticides, burrow fumigants, herbicides, and pesticides that may harm the Alameda Whipsnake directly.
Aside from human impact, the Alameda whipsnake must avoid its predators. The Alameda whipsnake's predators are California kingsnake
The California kingsnake (''Lampropeltis californiae'') is a nonvenomous colubrid snake endemic to the western United States and northern Mexico, and is found in a variety of habitats. Due to ease of care and a wide range of color variations, the ...
s, raccoon
The raccoon ( or , ''Procyon lotor''), sometimes called the common raccoon to distinguish it from other species, is a mammal native to North America. It is the largest of the procyonid family, having a body length of , and a body weight of ...
s, striped skunk
The striped skunk (''Mephitis mephitis'') is a skunk of the genus '' Mephitis'' that occurs across much of North America, including southern Canada, the United States, and northern Mexico. It is currently listed as least concern by the IUCN on ac ...
s, opossum
Opossums () are members of the marsupial order Didelphimorphia () endemic to the Americas. The largest order of marsupials in the Western Hemisphere, it comprises 93 species in 18 genera. Opossums originated in South America and entered North ...
s, coyote
The coyote (''Canis latrans'') is a species of canis, canine native to North America. It is smaller than its close relative, the wolf, and slightly smaller than the closely related eastern wolf and red wolf. It fills much of the same ecologica ...
s, gray fox
The gray fox (''Urocyon cinereoargenteus''), or grey fox, is an omnivorous mammal of the family Canidae, widespread throughout North America and Central America. This species and its only congener, the diminutive island fox (''Urocyon littora ...
es, red fox
The red fox (''Vulpes vulpes'') is the largest of the true foxes and one of the most widely distributed members of the Order (biology), order Carnivora, being present across the entire Northern Hemisphere including most of North America, Europe ...
es, hawk
Hawks are bird of prey, birds of prey of the family Accipitridae. They are widely distributed and are found on all continents except Antarctica.
* The subfamily Accipitrinae includes goshawks, sparrowhawks, sharp-shinned hawks and others. Th ...
s, feral pig
The feral pig is a domestic pig which has gone feral, meaning it lives in the wild. They are found mostly in the Americas and Australia. Razorback and wild hog are Americanisms applied to feral pigs or boar-pig hybrids.
Definition
A feral pi ...
s, dog
The dog (''Canis familiaris'' or ''Canis lupus familiaris'') is a domesticated descendant of the wolf. Also called the domestic dog, it is derived from the extinct Pleistocene wolf, and the modern wolf is the dog's nearest living relative. Do ...
s, and cat
The cat (''Felis catus'') is a domestic species of small carnivorous mammal. It is the only domesticated species in the family Felidae and is commonly referred to as the domestic cat or house cat to distinguish it from the wild members of ...
s.
Current conservation efforts
ESA listing history
The Alameda whipsnake was first listed as a threatened species
Threatened species are any species (including animals, plants and fungi) which are vulnerable to endangerment in the near future. Species that are threatened are sometimes characterised by the population dynamics measure of ''critical depensa ...
under the California Endangered Species Act
In 1970 California became one of the first states in the U.S. to implement an act that conserves and protects endangered species and their environments. The California Endangered Species Act (CESA) declares that "all native species of fishes, amph ...
in 1971 and the US Endangered Species Act
The Endangered Species Act of 1973 (ESA or "The Act"; 16 U.S.C. § 1531 et seq.) is the primary law in the United States for protecting imperiled species. Designed to protect critically imperiled species from extinction as a "consequence of ec ...
listed it in 1997. The first 5-year review was established in 2011 and recommended no change from current listing. The California Environmental Quality Act
The California Environmental Quality Act (CEQA) is a California statute passed in 1970 and signed in to law by then-Governor Ronald Reagan, shortly after the United States federal government passed the National Environmental Policy Act (NEPA), t ...
and California Endangered Species Act
In 1970 California became one of the first states in the U.S. to implement an act that conserves and protects endangered species and their environments. The California Endangered Species Act (CESA) declares that "all native species of fishes, amph ...
afforded the Alameda whipsnake some conservation benefits prior to its being federally listed, but these laws by themselves were far from adequate to protect the species. The listing of the Alameda whipsnake as a federally threatened species will increase the ability of public land agencies to promote conservation and management plans that take into consideration the specialized environmental and biological needs of this snake. These plans include an increased ability to conduct prescribed burns throughout the whipsnake's range; control native, introduced, and feral predators; regulate recreational use, and develop educational programs for the benefit of the Alameda whipsnake. With appropriate management, areas of open space managed by the East Bay Regional Park District
The East Bay Regional Park District (EBRPD) is a special district operating in Alameda County and Contra Costa County, California, within the East Bay area of the San Francisco Bay Area. It maintains and operates a system of regional parks which ...
, East Bay Municipal Utilities District
East Bay Municipal Utility District (EBMUD), colloquially referred to as "East Bay Mud", is a public utility district which provides water and sewage treatment services for an area of approximately in the eastern side of the San Francisco Bay.Sec ...
, and Mount Diablo State Park
Mount is often used as part of the name of specific mountains, e.g. Mount Everest.
Mount or Mounts may also refer to:
Places
* Mount, Cornwall, a village in Warleggan parish, England
* Mount, Perranzabuloe, a hamlet in Perranzabuloe parish, C ...
may be better utilized to protect the Alameda Whipsnake.
References
External links
United States Fish and Wildlife Service (USFWS): ''Masticophis lateralis euryxanthus'' species Account
— ''(Alameda Whipsnake)''.
* ttps://www.contracosta.ca.gov/depart/cd/water/HCP/archive/final-hcp/pdfs/apps/AppD/08a_alawhipsnake_9-28-06_profile.pdf
Alameda Whipsnake - Amphibians and Reptiles, Endangered Species Accounts , Sacramento Fish & Wildlife Office
{{Taxonbar, from=Q21363351
Colubrids