Romanized
Romanization or romanisation, in linguistics, is the conversion of text from a different writing system to the Roman (Latin) script, or a system for doing so. Methods of romanization include transliteration, for representing written text, and ...
as ''el-'', ''il-,'' and ''l-'' as pronounced in some
varieties of Arabic
The varieties (or dialects or vernacular languages) of Arabic, a Semitic language within the Afroasiatic family originating in the Arabian Peninsula, are the linguistic systems that Arabic speakers speak natively. There are considerable variati ...
, is the
definite article
An article is any member of a class of dedicated words that are used with noun phrases to mark the identifiability of the referents of the noun phrases. The category of articles constitutes a part of speech.
In English, both "the" and "a(n)" ar ...
in the
Arabic language
Arabic (, ' ; , ' or ) is a Semitic language spoken primarily across the Arab world.Semitic languages: an international handbook / edited by Stefan Weninger; in collaboration with Geoffrey Khan, Michael P. Streck, Janet C. E.Watson; Walter ...
: a
particle
In the Outline of physical science, physical sciences, a particle (or corpuscule in older texts) is a small wikt:local, localized physical body, object which can be described by several physical property, physical or chemical property, chemical ...
(''ḥarf'') whose function is to render the
noun
A noun () is a word that generally functions as the name of a specific object or set of objects, such as living creatures, places, actions, qualities, states of existence, or ideas.Example nouns for:
* Living creatures (including people, alive, d ...
on which it is prefixed definite. For example, the word ''kitāb'' "book" can be made definite by prefixing it with ''al-'', resulting in ''al-kitāb'' "the book". Consequently, ''al-'' is typically translated as "
the
''The'' () is a grammatical article in English, denoting persons or things already mentioned, under discussion, implied or otherwise presumed familiar to listeners, readers, or speakers. It is the definite article in English. ''The'' is the ...
" in English.
Unlike most other Arabic particles, ''al-'' is always prefixed to another word and never stands alone. Consequently, many dictionaries do not list it, and it is almost invariably ignored in
collation
Collation is the assembly of written information into a standard order. Many systems of collation are based on numerical order or alphabetical order, or extensions and combinations thereof. Collation is a fundamental element of most office fili ...
, as it is not an intrinsic part of the word.
''Al-'' does not inflect for
gender
Gender is the range of characteristics pertaining to femininity and masculinity and differentiating between them. Depending on the context, this may include sex-based social structures (i.e. gender roles) and gender identity. Most cultures u ...
,
number
A number is a mathematical object used to count, measure, and label. The original examples are the natural numbers 1, 2, 3, 4, and so forth. Numbers can be represented in language with number words. More universally, individual numbers c ...
or
grammatical case
A grammatical case is a category of nouns and noun modifiers (determiners, adjectives, participles, and Numeral (linguistics), numerals), which corresponds to one or more potential grammatical functions for a nominal group in a wording. In vari ...
. The sound of the final ''-l'' consonant, however, can vary; when followed by a sun letter such as ''t'', ''d'', ''r'', ''s'', ''n'' and a few others, it assimilates to that sound, thus doubling it. For example: for "the Nile", one does not say ''al-Nīl'', but ''an-Nīl''. When followed by a
moon letter
In Arabic and Maltese, the consonants are divided into two groups, called the sun letters or solar letters ( ar, حروف شمسية ', mt, konsonanti xemxin) and moon letters or lunar letters (Arabic: ', mt, konsonanti qamrin), based on wh ...
, like ''m-'', there is no assimilation: ''al-masjid'' ("the mosque"). This affects only the pronunciation and not the spelling of the article.
Overview
To put ''al''- into perspective, there are many ways in which Arabic words can be made
definite
In linguistics, definiteness is a semantic feature of noun phrases, distinguishing between referents or senses that are identifiable in a given context (definite noun phrases) and those which are not (indefinite noun phrases). The prototypical d ...
. These include the use of
personal pronoun
Personal pronouns are pronouns that are associated primarily with a particular grammatical person – first person (as ''I''), second person (as ''you''), or third person (as ''he'', ''she'', ''it'', ''they''). Personal pronouns may also take dif ...
s like "me", the use of
proper nouns
A proper noun is a noun that identifies a single entity and is used to refer to that entity (''Africa'', ''Jupiter'', ''Sarah (given name), Sarah'', ''Microsoft)'' as distinguished from a common noun, which is a noun that refers to a Class (philo ...
like "Saudi Arabia",
demonstrative pronouns
Demonstratives (abbreviated ) are words, such as ''this'' and ''that'', used to indicate which entities are being referred to and to distinguish those entities from others. They are typically deictic; their meaning depending on a particular frame ...
like "this man",
relative pronoun
A relative pronoun is a pronoun that marks a relative clause. It serves the purpose of conjoining modifying information about an antecedent referent.
An example is the word ''which'' in the sentence "This is the house which Jack built." Here the ...
s like "the man who ...",
vocation
A vocation () is an occupation to which a person is especially drawn or for which they are suited, trained or qualified. People can be given information about a new occupation through student orientation. Though now often used in non-religious co ...
like "O man",
possession
Possession may refer to:
Law
* Dependent territory, an area of land over which another country exercises sovereignty, but which does not have the full right of participation in that country's governance
* Drug possession, a crime
* Ownership
* ...
like "my man", and of course the definite article like "the man". Apart from possession, prefixing a noun with ''al''- is the weakest form of definiteness. That is, saying "the man" does not define the man being referred to as clearly as saying "this man", for example.
Arabic has an indefinite article indicated by
nunation
Nunation ( ar, تَنوِين, ' ), in some Semitic languages such as Literary Arabic, is the addition of one of three vowel diacritics (''ḥarakāt'') to a noun or adjective.
This is used to indicate the word ends in an alveolar nasal without ...
(') which is declined for three cases.
Etymology
The
etymology
Etymology ()The New Oxford Dictionary of English (1998) – p. 633 "Etymology /ˌɛtɪˈmɒlədʒi/ the study of the class in words and the way their meanings have changed throughout time". is the study of the history of the Phonological chan ...
of ''al''- is the study of how it developed and how it changed over time. There are several major opinions in regards to the origins of the Arabic definite article. The earliest evidence of the article, besides a 1st-century BC inscription in
Qaryat al-Faw
Qaryat Al Faw ( ar, قرية الفاو) was the capital of the first Kindah kingdom. It is located about 100 km south of Wadi ad-Dawasir, and about 700 km southwest of Riyadh, the capital city of Saudi Arabia. The Al Faw archeological ...
(formerly Qaryat Dhat Kahil, near
Sulayyil
Al Sulayyil ( ar, السليل) or As Sulayyil is a village in Ar Riyad Province, Saudi Arabia. The city is located about 575 km South of Riyadh city proper and 80 km North-East of Wadi ad-Dawasir, another relatively larger city. It has ...
,
Saudi Arabia
Saudi Arabia, officially the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia (KSA), is a country in Western Asia. It covers the bulk of the Arabian Peninsula, and has a land area of about , making it the fifth-largest country in Asia, the second-largest in the A ...
), occurs in the 5th century BC, in the epithet of a goddess which
Herodotus
Herodotus ( ; grc, , }; BC) was an ancient Greek historian and geographer from the Greek city of Halicarnassus, part of the Persian Empire (now Bodrum, Turkey) and a later citizen of Thurii in modern Calabria ( Italy). He is known f ...
('' Histories'' I: 131, III: 8) quotes in its preclassical Arabic form as ''Alilat'' (Ἀλιλάτ, i. e.,''ʼal-ʼilat''), which means "the goddess".
Proto-Semitic particle hypothesis
While the
Proto-Semitic
Proto-Semitic is the hypothetical reconstructed proto-language ancestral to the Semitic languages. There is no consensus regarding the location of the Proto-Semitic ''Urheimat''; scholars hypothesize that it may have originated in the Levant (m ...
language did not have any articles, the most likely theory is that the article ''al''- comes from the same
proto-Semitic
Proto-Semitic is the hypothetical reconstructed proto-language ancestral to the Semitic languages. There is no consensus regarding the location of the Proto-Semitic ''Urheimat''; scholars hypothesize that it may have originated in the Levant (m ...
source as the
Hebrew
Hebrew (; ; ) is a Northwest Semitic language of the Afroasiatic language family. Historically, it is one of the spoken languages of the Israelites and their longest-surviving descendants, the Jews and Samaritans. It was largely preserved ...
definite article ''ha-''. That theory is based primarily on the fact that the two share many similarities. Both particles are prefixed to nouns, and both
geminate
In phonetics and phonology, gemination (), or consonant lengthening (from Latin 'doubling', itself from ''gemini'' 'twins'), is an articulation of a consonant for a longer period of time than that of a singleton consonant. It is distinct from s ...
with certain following letters. Moreover, neither particle is prefixed to non-
final noun A noun string is a term for a series of nouns or other words, all of which modify the final noun. For example, in the noun string “U.S. energy consumption” the nouns "U.S." and "energy" modify the final noun "consumption." Noun strings are frequ ...
s in a genitival construction. Finally, both are prefixed to relative clauses. According to David Testen, many northern and southwestern
Semitic languages
The Semitic languages are a branch of the Afroasiatic language family. They are spoken by more than 330 million people across much of West Asia, the Horn of Africa, and latterly North Africa, Malta, West Africa, Chad, and in large immigra ...
have particles that bear similarities to ''al''-. With this fact, he posits that ''al''- has a
proto-Semitic
Proto-Semitic is the hypothetical reconstructed proto-language ancestral to the Semitic languages. There is no consensus regarding the location of the Proto-Semitic ''Urheimat''; scholars hypothesize that it may have originated in the Levant (m ...
antecedent.
There are three major possibilities regarding the form of the proto-Semitic particle that is the putative antecedent of ''al''-:
* ''hal'';
* ''ha'';
* ''‘a'';
David Testen and Jacob Weingreen state that / ''hal'' is the correct antecedent.
Often cited is the Arabic word for 'this', ''hādhā'', which, when combined with a definite phrase, has been known to become shortened from ''hādhā al-bayt'' (this house) to ''hal-bayt''. However, ''hal-bayt ''may merely be a shortening of the demonstrative pronoun.
Weingreen also states that the original form of the Hebrew ''ha-'' was in fact ''hal''. Hebrew, then, dropped the final ''l'' to achieve ''ha''- while Arabic softened the ''h''- to a hamza, resulting in ''al''-. However, there is no evidence supporting the existence of ''hal'' from ancient Hebrew texts. In fact, as early as the 6th century BC both ''han'' (a probable predecessor of the Hebrew ''ha'') and ''al'' were being used simultaneously in different Arabic dialects, namely Northern and Central.
The Arabic word ''hādhā'' is equivalent to the Hebrew word זה ''zé''. It appears that over time Hebrew shortened the demonstrative pronoun hazé (''eikh korím layéled hazé?'' or What's this boy's name?) to simply ''zé''. That indicates that the Hebrew ''ha-'' was the accurate retention of the original proto-Semitic source, as opposed to ''al-'', which cannot conclusively be linked to the ancient cognate demonstrative pronoun ''hādhā/hazé''.
Arabic ''lā'' hypothesis
According to Jacob Barth, who was lecturer in
Hebrew
Hebrew (; ; ) is a Northwest Semitic language of the Afroasiatic language family. Historically, it is one of the spoken languages of the Israelites and their longest-surviving descendants, the Jews and Samaritans. It was largely preserved ...
at the
Hildesheimer Rabbinical Seminary
The Hildesheimer Rabbinical Seminary (officially in german: Rabbinerseminar für das orthodoxe Judenthum in Berlin until 1880, thereafter ''Rabbiner-Seminar zu Berlin''; in , ''Bet ha-midrash le-Rabanim be-Berlin'') was founded in Berlin on 22 Octo ...
, ''al''- comes directly from the Arabic negating particle, ''lā.'' He conjectures that ''lā'' became ''al''- through a process of metathesis. That is to say, the
lām
Lamedh or Lamed is the twelfth letter of the Semitic abjads, including Hebrew Lāmed , Aramaic Lāmadh , Syriac Lāmaḏ ܠ, Arabic , and Phoenician Lāmed . Its sound value is .
The Phoenician letter gave rise to the Greek Lambda (Λ), Latin ...
and the alif swapped positions. It is noteworthy that the negation denoted by ''lā'' and the definiteness denoted by ''al''- are in stark contrast to each other.
Barth also asserts that ''lā'' could have resulted in ''al''- through a process of syncope so the alif in ''lā'' and the vowel over the ''lām'' were dropped, resulting in a
sukūn
The Arabic script has numerous diacritics, which include: consonant pointing known as (), and supplementary diacritics known as (). The latter include the vowel marks termed (; singular: , ').
The Arabic script is a modified abjad, where sh ...
(an Arabic diacritic) over the ''lām'', and a volatile or elidable
hamza
Hamza ( ar, همزة ') () is a letter in the Arabic alphabet, representing the glottal stop . Hamza is not one of the 28 "full" letters and owes its existence to historical inconsistencies in the standard writing system. It is derived from ...
was added to compensate for that.
David Testen argues against both of these explanations. He says that there is no corroboratory evidence for either metathesis or syncope.
Arabic ''la'' hypothesis
It is possible that ''al''- comes from the same root as the asseverative-cum-precative particle, ''la-''; it is the ''la-'' used at the beginning of
nominal sentence
Nominal sentence (also known as equational sentence) is a linguistic term that refers to a nonverbal sentence (i.e. a sentence without a finite verb). As a nominal sentence does not have a verbal predicate, it may contain a nominal predicate, an a ...
s for emphasis.
Phonology
The
phonology
Phonology is the branch of linguistics that studies how languages or dialects systematically organize their sounds or, for sign languages, their constituent parts of signs. The term can also refer specifically to the sound or sign system of a ...
of ''al''- is the study of its constituent letters and
vowels
A vowel is a syllabic speech sound pronounced without any stricture in the vocal tract. Vowels are one of the two principal classes of speech sounds, the other being the consonant. Vowels vary in quality, in loudness and also in quantity (leng ...
, and of its pronunciation in different dialects and in different lexical circumstances.
The ''hamza'' in ''al''-
A classical (and largely one-sided) debate in regards to ''al''- is whether the
hamza
Hamza ( ar, همزة ') () is a letter in the Arabic alphabet, representing the glottal stop . Hamza is not one of the 28 "full" letters and owes its existence to historical inconsistencies in the standard writing system. It is derived from ...
is volatile or not. The majority opinion is that of
Sibawayh
Sibawayh ( ar, سِيبَوَيْهِ ' or ; fa, سِیبُویه ' ; c. 760–796), whose full name is Abu Bishr Amr ibn Uthman ibn Qanbar al-Basri (, '), was a Persian leading grammarian of Basra and author of the earliest book on Arabic ...
(d. ca. 797), who considers the hamza volatile. In his opinion, the hamza neither is part of ''al''- nor contributes to the definiteness of the following word.
Khalīl, Ibn Keisān and Akhfash, on the other hand, consider the hamza not to be volatile. There is a further debate among the proponents of the second theory. Some do not consider the hamza volatile and assert that it contributes to the definiteness of the following word. Others assert that the hamza contributes to the definiteness of the following word but is still volatile.
In his defence, Khalīl argues that when a word prefixed with ''al''- is preceded by the interrogative hamza, the two hamzas mix. For example, when the word ''al-āna'' (now) is prefixed with it, the result is ''āl-āna''. Clearly, the hamza of ''al''- does not drop in this case even though there is no further purpose for it.
Khalīl further argues that the only reason the hamza in ''al''- is ever dropped is not that it is volatile but that it is used too much. When asked why the lām in ''al''- was not simply given a vowel if it is so heavily used and it needs to be easier to pronounce, followers of Khalīl said that if the lām had been given a ''fatḥa'', it would have been confused with the asseverative-cum-precative particle. Had it been given a kasra, it would have been confused with the genitival particle. It could not have been given a ḍamma for fear of the following vowel being a kasra or ḍamma (which would result in awkward pronunciations as in *''lu-ibil'' or *''lu-‘unuq'').
Despite the myriad of proofs for the argument, in most classical grammars and in modern Arabic, the opinion of Sibawayh is often taken as an axiomatic fact. There are many proofs and counterproofs, but the overarching argument in favour of this opinion is as follows:
The lām in ''al''- is the only lām particle in the language with a sukūn (to avoid confusion, as mentioned). Thus, it requires a volatile hamza. Moreover, ''al''- is a particle, and Arabic particles do not drop letters (without losing their meanings or connotations). Yet the hamza in ''al''- drops all the time. Therefore, it must be volatile, or ''al''- would lose its ability to render the following word definite.
Consequently, it turns out that the hamza in ''al''- is considered the only volatile hamza in the language that has a
fatḥa
The Arabic script has numerous diacritics, which include: consonant pointing known as (), and supplementary diacritics known as (). The latter include the vowel marks termed (; singular: , ').
The Arabic script is a modified abjad, where sh ...
vowel.
The ''lām'' in ''al''-
In very early Semitic languages, definiteness was achieved through
gemination
In phonetics and phonology, gemination (), or consonant lengthening (from Latin 'doubling', itself from ''gemini'' 'twins'), is an articulation of a consonant for a longer period of time than that of a singleton consonant. It is distinct from s ...
of the first letter in a word. For example, the word ''kitāb'' would be made definite by ''ak-kitāb''. An additional benefit of this construction was to connote "determination". The ''lām'' in the Arabic ''al''- was thus a result of a dissimilation process.
In Arabic, this gemination occurs when the word to which ''al''- is prefixed begins with one of the fourteen
sun letters
In Arabic and Maltese, the consonants are divided into two groups, called the sun letters or solar letters ( ar, حروف شمسية ', mt, konsonanti xemxin) and moon letters or lunar letters (Arabic: ', mt, konsonanti qamrin), based on wh ...
. Twelve of these letters (including lām) are originally designed to geminate. Ḍād and shīn have been included due to their similarities in pronunciation with lām and ţā, respectively. For example, the word ' 'the man' is actually pronounced "". Notice that the lām is written but not pronounced.
In more modern dialects, the sun letters have been extended to include the velars gīm and kāf.
The ancient people of
Himyar
The Himyarite Kingdom ( ar, مملكة حِمْيَر, Mamlakat Ḥimyar, he, ממלכת חִמְיָר), or Himyar ( ar, حِمْيَر, ''Ḥimyar'', / 𐩹𐩧𐩺𐩵𐩬) ( fl. 110 BCE–520s CE), historically referred to as the Homerit ...
replace the lām in ''al''- with mīm. The Prophet Muhammad is recorded to have uttered the following words in that dialect:
In some Semitic languages like Hebrew, words that include the letter lāmed have Arabic cognates that replace it with a Mīm as opposed to Lām, the equivalent letter. For example,
skull
The skull is a bone protective cavity for the brain. The skull is composed of four types of bone i.e., cranial bones, facial bones, ear ossicles and hyoid bone. However two parts are more prominent: the cranium and the mandible. In humans, the ...
in Hebrew is גֻּלְגֹּלֶת (gulgolet). Its Arabic cognate is (). This gives plausibility to the case of Banu Hamīr and indicates that lām is frequently equated with Mīm.
The vowels in ''al''-
Regardless of whether the hamza in ''al''- is volatile or not, it is read with a fatḥa when beginning speech with the definite article. For example, if one vocalizes the word 'the house' after a pause, it will be pronounced "al-bayt". In fact, the hamza in ''al''- is largely considered to be the only volatile hamza that has a
fatḥa
The Arabic script has numerous diacritics, which include: consonant pointing known as (), and supplementary diacritics known as (). The latter include the vowel marks termed (; singular: , ').
The Arabic script is a modified abjad, where sh ...
vowel.
If, however, ''al''- is vocalized in the middle of speech, the hamza will be dropped in pronunciation. As a result, the vowel preceding the definite article will be linked to the lām of ''al''-. For example, (vocalized without any pauses) is pronounced "bābu l-bayt", is pronounced "bāba l-bayt", and is pronounced "bābi l-bayt".
If the word onto which ''al''- is prefixed starts with a hamza, the vowel from that hamza may transfer to the lām of ''al''- after which the hamza not be pronounced. See
Allah
Allah (; ar, الله, translit=Allāh, ) is the common Arabic word for God. In the English language, the word generally refers to God in Islam. The word is thought to be derived by contraction from '' al- ilāh'', which means "the god", an ...
in "Arabic definite article" for an example. If this hamza is volatile, that is required. An example is in the phrase ''bi’sa al-ismu''. The phrase is read as "''bi’sa lismu''" (Qur'an 49:11). The rule relates to hamza and is not in direct relation to ''al''-. Moreover, it is a rare occurrence and is almost never applied in spoken varieties of modern or classical Arabic.
Separating ''al''- from its host word
''Al''- has been recorded to separate from its host word as in the following couplet:
The ''al''- in has been recorded both with and without the alif. It has been stripped from its host word because of the meter of the couplet. It has then been repeated in the second half of the couplet reattached to its host. This happened very rarely and, even then, has been recorded only in poetry.
Lexicology
Definiteness
The primary and most profuse function of ''al''- is to render the following word definite. This is known as . This function is of two types:
* : when the word being referred to has already been mentioned. An example is found in the word ''messenger'' in "We had sent to Pharaoh a messenger. But Pharaoh disobeyed the messenger..." (Qur'an 73:15-6).
* : when the word being referred to is understood by the listener. An example is found in the word ''battle'' in "The battle is getting worse; I think we should retreat."
There is also a special type of known as "the ''al''- for ”. The noun on which the ''al''- is prefixed, in this case, is never explicitly mentioned but the listener knows what is being referred to. For example, the word ''al-kitāb'' (the book) may actually refer to the classical book of Arabic grammar written by Sibawayh. Whenever grammarians talk about "the book", this is what they mean and it is always understood without explanation.
Class nouns
One of the functions of ''al''- is to render the noun onto which it is prefixed a class noun ( ar, اِسْم جِنس, ism jins). For example, the word “al-asad” can mean ‘the lion’, referring to a specific lion, or ‘the lion’ in the sense ‘the lion is a dangerous animal’.
Notice that the meaning connoted by this function of ''al''- is indefinite, which is in stark contrast with the primary function of the definite article. Because of this meaning, the noun following ''al''- can be grammatically indefinite and one may, for example, modify the noun without the use of a relative pronoun. An example of this is seen in the following couplet of poetry:
Encompassing a genus
''Al''- may be used to encompass all the individuals of a
genus
Genus ( plural genera ) is a taxonomic rank used in the biological classification of extant taxon, living and fossil organisms as well as Virus classification#ICTV classification, viruses. In the hierarchy of biological classification, genus com ...
( ar, استغراق الجِنس). For example, “al-asad” can be used to mean ‘all lions’. This function is called . One is encouraged to use caution when employing this form of ''al''- as it may be confused with its other meanings.
In order for ''al''- to be in this capacity, it is necessary that it be interchangeable with the word ''kull'' 'all, every'. Some classical grammarians assert that this ''kull'' may be figurative, in which case ''al''-, in this capacity, would be a form of
exaggeration
Exaggeration is the representation of something as more extreme or dramatic than it really is. Exaggeration may occur intentionally or unintentionally.
Exaggeration can be a rhetorical device or figure of speech. It may be used to evoke str ...
.
The most well known use of ''al''- in this meaning occurs twice in the Qur'anic verse 1:1, (all praise is due to Allah, lord of all the worlds).
Indicating presence
''Al''- is often used in words to indicate the presence of something. For example, “al-yawm” means ‘this day’ i.e. ‘today’. In modern Arabic, this function is largely
idiomatic
Idiom, also called idiomaticness or idiomaticity, is the syntactical, grammatical, or structural form peculiar to a language. Idiom is the realized structure of a language, as opposed to possible but unrealized structures that could have develop ...
and does not carry over to new words.
At the beginning of names
''Al''- may be prefixed to names that are derived from Arabic nouns. This function is known as . The purpose of doing this is to point toward the meaning of the one named. For example, the name ''‘Adīl'' (meaning 'just') may be read "''al-‘Adīl''" to allude to the fact that ‘Adīl is a just person.
In modern Arabic, however, this type of ''al''- is largely idiomatic. That is to say, names traditionally prefixed with ''al''- are kept as such and names without ''al''- are also kept as such; the connotation of this ''al''- is ignored.
When it comes to alphabetic ordering, some sources will list names according to the ''al''- while others will ignore it.
Extra
''Al''- is sometimes prefixed to words without giving any grammatical benefit. This may occur in poetry, in which case the purpose may be to maintain metre, rhythm, or rhyme.
It may also occur elsewhere to give a rhetorical benefit. For example, the ''al''- attached to the relative pronoun ''al-ladhī'' (that/which/etc) is considered to be extra ( ar, زائدة, zāʾidah), because relative pronouns are already definite and there is no use for the ''al''-. ''Al''- is perpetually and necessarily attached to this word in most Arabic dialects. Thus its purpose is not a lexical or grammatical one, but a rhetorical one.
In the above example, the extra ''al''- is necessary. There are other cases where it is extra but not necessary. An example is in the following phrase:
The word “awwal” (first) is considered “ḥāl” (a type of object in grammar) in the above phrase. This type of object is typically indefinite according to most classical and modern grammarians. So the ''al''- attached to it is unnecessarily extra.
Miscellaneous
* Jamīl Shāmi asserts that there is a type of ''al''- that connotes the essence of something. For example, "And we made from water every living thing ..." (Qur'an 21:30) can be translated as "And we made from the essence of water (i.e., from the compound H2O) every living thing ..."
* Shāmi also cites a usage of ''al''- as an interrogative particle. For example, ''al fa‘alta'' (did you do it?). Notice that the ''al''- stands alone and un-prefixed here.
Grammar
At the beginning of particles (ḥarf) and verbs (fi‘l)
''Al''- is a particle (''ḥarf'') in the Arabic language. Like most (but not all) particles, it is not prefixed to other particles. That is because particles are never in need of any of the lexical meanings or grammatical inflections provided by ''al''-.
Similarly, ''al''- is not prefixed to verbs. However, it has been seen on verbs in poetry, as in the following couplets by Dhu al-Kharq al-Tahawi (ذو الخرق الطهوي):
Several opinions exist to explain this aberrant ''al''-. The following is a precis of different Arabic scholars' views as given in ''Khizanat al-Adab''.
One view is that ''al''- is a relative pronoun here, similar to ''alladhī'' (الذي), ''allatī'' (التي), etc. in Arabic. This is the view of Ibn Hisham and
Al-Akhfash al-Akbar
Abu al-Khaṭṭāb ʻAbd al-Ḥamīd ibn ʻAbd al-Majīd ( ar, أبو الخطاب عبد الحميد بن عبد المجيد; died 177 AH/793 CE), commonly known as Al-Akhfash al-Akbar ( ar, الأخفش الأكبر) was an Arab grammarian who ...
.خزانة الأدب-عبد القادر البغدادي /ref>
This opinion is in harmony with the form of the general relative pronoun (''alli'', ''illi'', ''al'') in most Arabic dialects nowadays. If this view is correct, this aberrant ''al''- does not follow the
sun and moon letters
In Arabic and Maltese, the consonants are divided into two groups, called the sun letters or solar letters ( ar, حروف شمسية ', mt, konsonanti xemxin) and moon letters or lunar letters (Arabic: ', mt, konsonanti qamrin), based on wh ...
rule.
''Al-'' may also be used to turn verbs in the imperfect, passive state into adjectives in a limited set of circumstances. This is employed to show ability/possibility, or with the use of another particle ("-la-"), inability/impossibility as is related to the definite word the resulting adjective modifies. Examples: ''Al-yurā'' : the see-able; ''al-yu'kal'' : the edible; ''al-''la''-yurā'' : the un-see-able; ''al-''la''-silkī'' : the wire-less evice etc.
When ''al''- occurs in places where we would not normally expect it, it is considered extra as far as grammar and lexicology are concerned. This is the view of al-Kisā’ī.
''Al''- is used by poets to complete the meter of the verse under poetic license. This is the view of
Ibn Malik
Abu 'Abd Allah Jamal al-Din Muḥammad ibn Abd Allāh ibn Malik al-Ta'i al-Jayyani ( ar, ابو عبدالله جمال الدين محمد بن عبدالله بن محمد بن عبدالله بن مالك الطائي الجياني النحو ...
, the author of the ''Alfiyyah''; it is rejected by the author of the ''Khizānat al-Adab''.
At the beginning of nouns (''ism'')
:''The terms ''noun'' and ''ism'' have been used synonymously in this section''
Because nouns require the functions provided by ''al''- (namely definiteness), ''al''- is prefixed to them. ''Ism'', as defined in classical Arabic grammar, includes all parts of speech save particles and verbs: nouns, pronouns, adjectives, adverbs, etc.
As a general rule, ''al''- may be prefixed to any ''ism'', regardless of gender, plurality, grammatical case, etc. However, this rule has some pathological caveats. That is, there are some nouns that ''al''- may never be prefixed to, and there are others that ''al''- must always be prefixed to.
Prohibited prefixation
= Nouns that do not inflect for definiteness
=
The definite article ''al''- is not typically prefixed to nouns that do not inflect for definiteness. Examples include the interrogative ''man'' 'who'.
= Already definite nouns
=
The definite article ''al''- is not typically prefixed to nouns that are already definite. Examples include personal pronouns, relative pronouns, demonstrative pronouns, nouns already prefixed with ''al''-, etc.
Exceptions to this include the prefixation of ''al''- to the relative pronoun (see #Extra) and to proper nouns (see #At the beginning of names). As a concrete example, ''al''- has been recorded at the beginning of a demonstrative pronoun, as in the following poetic verse:
= The genitival construction (''iḍāfa'')
=
''Al''- is not prefixed to non-final nouns in a genitival construction (Iḍāfa). For example, in ''shawāri‘ al-madīna'' (the city’s streets), the word is a non-final noun in the genitival construction. Hence, it cannot be prefixed with ''al''- (it is already definite by virtue of the construction).
Exceptions to this include genitival constructions where the first noun is a
participle
In linguistics, a participle () (from Latin ' a "sharing, partaking") is a nonfinite verb form that has some of the characteristics and functions of both verbs and adjectives. More narrowly, ''participle'' has been defined as "a word derived from ...
and the second noun is its object. This can be done if one of the following conditions is met.
* the first noun is dual; e.g.
* the first noun is sound masculine plural; e.g.
* the second noun also has ''al''-; e.g.
* the second noun is the first noun of another genitival construction, and the second noun in this other construction has ''al''-; e.g.
* the second noun is suffixed to a pronoun which refers to a noun that has ''al''-; e.g.
''Al''- has also been seen in poetic verses prefixed to non-final nouns in a genitival construction. An example is in the following couplet:
Furthermore, the grammatical school of Kufa allows ''al''- on the first noun in a genitival construction if it is a number. For example, the phrase “thalāthat aqlām” (three pens) may be read “al-thalāthat aqlām”.
= Vocation
=
According to the Basra school of classical grammar, ''al''- does not typically follow the particles of vocation. For example, one will not say “yā ar-rajul” (O the man).
The proponents of the Basra camp give two exceptions.
* the word “
Allah
Allah (; ar, الله, translit=Allāh, ) is the common Arabic word for God. In the English language, the word generally refers to God in Islam. The word is thought to be derived by contraction from '' al- ilāh'', which means "the god", an ...
”; one may say “yā Allah” (O God) with or without pronouncing the hamza in “Allah”.
* direct quotation; one may say, for example, “yā al-Ḥasan” (O al-Hasan) to someone named al-Hasan.
However, the Kufa camp of classical grammar, as well as many modern grammarians, allow ''al''- to be prefixed to the object of vocation almost unconditionally. An example is given in the following couplet of poetry:
Under this scheme, if the object of vocation is a single word and it is feminine, the particle of vocation will be followed by the particle ''ayyatuhā''. And if it is masculine, it will be followed by the particle ''ayyuhā''.
= Nunation (''tanwīn'')
=
According to the classical grammarians Farrā and Kasā’ī, the overarching purpose of
nunation
Nunation ( ar, تَنوِين, ' ), in some Semitic languages such as Literary Arabic, is the addition of one of three vowel diacritics (''ḥarakāt'') to a noun or adjective.
This is used to indicate the word ends in an alveolar nasal without ...
is to differentiate between nouns and verbs. Thus a noun is given nunation so that it won’t be confused with a verb; for example the name would have been confused with a quadriliteral verb had it not been for nunation. Additionally, we know that ''al''- is not prefixed to verbs. Therefore, when ''al''- is prefixed to a noun, there is no longer any danger of the noun being confused with a verb, and so the nunation is no longer needed. Hence, no noun has both ''al''- and nunation simultaneously.
However, there are some types of nunation whose purpose is not to differentiate between nouns and verbs. Such types include (a type of nunation converted from an alif at the end of poetic couplets) and (a type of nunation used to maintain the metre of a poem).
An example of the first type in conjunction with ''al''- is found in the following couplet of poetry:
And an example of the second type in conjunction with ''al''- is found in the verse below:
Necessary prefixation
There are some nouns that are invariably seen with ''al''-. Examples include the relative pronoun ''al-ladhī'' (that/which/etc).
''Al-'' on numbers
''Al''- may be prefixed to the first part of a number between 11 and 19.Hasan, v. 1 p. 439 For example, ''aḥada ‘ashar'' (eleven) may be read as "''al-aḥada ‘ashar''".
In the case of a compound number (21-29, 31-39, ..., 91-99), ''al''- may be prefixed to both parts. For example, ''wāḥid wa-‘ishrūn'' (twenty-one) may be read as "''al-wāḥid wa-al-‘ishrūn''".
''Al''- on participles
When ''al''- is prefixed to a participle, it acts like a relative pronoun. For the purposes of this rule, participles include (the active participle), (the passive participle), (another participle in Arabic), etc. For example, . This is translated as “I passed by the man who was riding his steed” as opposed to something like “I passed by the rider of his steed.” Consequently, all the rules of Arabic relative pronouns and their clauses will apply here.
It is widely accepted in Arabic grammar that a participle can carry tense. This tense, however, is typically limited to the present and future. But when we use the above construction, the past can be connoted by the participle as well due to the nature of relative clauses. For example, one may say (I passed by the man who was riding his steed yesterday).
Some grammarians, however, say that it is only the past that can be connoted in this construction; the option of connoting the present and future is no longer available. And others say that no tense at all can be connoted.
Effects of ''al''- on grammatical case
''Al-'' has very few contributions to the grammatical case of a noun. However, it is worth mentioning that it turns second-declension nouns (''ghayr munṣarif'') into first declension nouns by allowing the kasra vowel.
Moreover, ''al''- brings back the letter in an ''ism manqūṣ'' that is in the nominative or genitive case. Without the ''al''-, the in such nouns is omitted and replaced by nunation.
In other languages
The article was borrowed along with a large number of Arabic nouns into the
Iberian Romance languages
The Iberian Romance, Ibero-Romance or sometimes Iberian languagesIberian languages is also used as a more inclusive term for all languages spoken on the Iberian Peninsula, which in antiquity included the non-Indo-European Iberian language. are a ...
. (See
Al-Andalus
Al-Andalus DIN 31635, translit. ; an, al-Andalus; ast, al-Ándalus; eu, al-Andalus; ber, ⴰⵏⴷⴰⵍⵓⵙ, label=Berber languages, Berber, translit=Andalus; ca, al-Àndalus; gl, al-Andalus; oc, Al Andalús; pt, al-Ândalus; es, ...
.) Portuguese, for example, acquired some 1,200 Arabic words between the 9th and 13th centuries, such as ' "village" (from ''alḍaiʿa''), ' "lettuce" (from ''alxas''), ' "warehouse" (from ''almaxzan''), and ' "olive oil" (from ''azzait''). It even appears on non-Arabic vocabulary, such as ''enxofre'' "sulfur" (also ''xofre'', from late classical Latin ''sulfur''; the prefix nasalizes before ''x'').
Spanish has a similar inventory, such as ''alfombra'' "carpet" and ''algodón'' "cotton", including such Arabic–Latinate doublets as ''aceituna'' and ''oliva'' "olive", ''alacrán'' and ''escorpión'' "scorpion", ''alcancía'' and ''hucha'' "piggy bank", as well as ''azufre ~ zufre'' "sulfur".
Whether through the Iberian languages or by other routes, such as the technical vocabulary borrowed by various European languages during the adoption of Arab mathematics and science, a number of English words contain the Arabic definite article. These include ''alcove, alcohol, albatross, alfalfa, algebra, algorithm, alchemy,
alkaline
In chemistry, an alkali (; from ar, القلوي, al-qaly, lit=ashes of the saltwort) is a base (chemistry), basic, ionic compound, ionic salt (chemistry), salt of an alkali metal or an alkaline earth metal. An alkali can also be defined as ...
,
alembic
An alembic (from ar, الإنبيق, al-inbīq, originating from grc, ἄμβιξ, ambix, 'cup, beaker') is an alchemical still consisting of two vessels connected by a tube, used for distillation of liquids.
Description
The complete disti ...
, elixir, artichoke,
acequia
An acequia () or séquia () is a community-operated watercourse used in Spain and former Spanish colonies in the Americas for irrigation. Particularly in Spain, the Andes, northern Mexico, and the modern-day American Southwest particularly n ...
,
adobe
Adobe ( ; ) is a building material made from earth and organic materials. is Spanish for ''mudbrick''. In some English-speaking regions of Spanish heritage, such as the Southwestern United States, the term is used to refer to any kind of e ...
,
aniline
Aniline is an organic compound with the formula C6 H5 NH2. Consisting of a phenyl group attached to an amino group, aniline is the simplest aromatic amine
In organic chemistry, an aromatic amine is an organic compound consisting of an aroma ...
, apricot, aubergine,
azimuth
An azimuth (; from ar, اَلسُّمُوت, as-sumūt, the directions) is an angular measurement in a spherical coordinate system. More specifically, it is the horizontal angle from a cardinal direction, most commonly north.
Mathematicall ...
,'' and the names of stars such as ''
Algol
ALGOL (; short for "Algorithmic Language") is a family of imperative computer programming languages originally developed in 1958. ALGOL heavily influenced many other languages and was the standard method for algorithm description used by the ...
''.
In ''azure'', from ''lāzūard'', the initial ''l'' of the word was lost due to being mistaken as the Arabic article; it is retained in ''
lazurite
Lazurite is a tectosilicate mineral with sulfate, sulfur and chloride with formula . It is a feldspathoid and a member of the sodalite group. Lazurite crystallizes in the isometric system although well‐formed crystals are rare. It is usually ...
'' and in the compound ''
lapis lazuli
Lapis lazuli (; ), or lapis for short, is a deep-blue metamorphic rock used as a semi-precious stone that has been prized since antiquity for its intense color.
As early as the 7th millennium BC, lapis lazuli was mined in the Sar-i Sang mines, ...
''. In ''lute'', form ', the ''a'' of the article was dropped, but the ''l'' retained; compare ''
oud
, image=File:oud2.jpg
, image_capt=Syrian oud made by Abdo Nahat in 1921
, background=
, classification=
* String instruments
*Necked bowl lutes
, hornbostel_sachs=321.321-6
, hornbostel_sachs_desc=Composite chordophone sounded with a plectrum
, ...
''. In ''admiral'', the article comes at the end, as it is an abbreviation of such phrases as ''amīr-al-mā'' "commander of the water" and ''amīr-al-bahr'' "commander of the sea".
The al- article is also used in
Arabic
Arabic (, ' ; , ' or ) is a Semitic languages, Semitic language spoken primarily across the Arab world.Semitic languages: an international handbook / edited by Stefan Weninger; in collaboration with Geoffrey Khan, Michael P. Streck, Janet C ...
mostly related to religious, administrative and scientific vocabulary. The most common al- words in
Arabic grammar
Arabic grammar or Arabic language sciences ( ar, النحو العربي ' or ar, عُلُوم اللغَة العَرَبِيَّة ') is the grammar of the Arabic language. Arabic is a Semitic language and its grammar has many similarities with ...
*
Arabic phonology
While many languages have numerous dialects that differ in phonology, the contemporary spoken Arabic language is more properly described as a varieties of Arabic, continuum of varieties. This article deals primarily with Modern Standard Arabic ...
*
Grammatical particle
In grammar, the term ''particle'' (abbreviated ) has a traditional meaning, as a part of speech that cannot be inflected, and a modern meaning, as a function word associated with another word or phrase, generally in order to impart meaning. Altho ...
*
Influence of Arabic on other languages
Arabic has had a great influence on other languages, especially in vocabulary. The influence of Arabic has been most profound in those countries visited by Islam or Islamic power.
Arabic loanwords have made into many languages as diverse as Amh ...
*
Sun and moon letters
In Arabic and Maltese, the consonants are divided into two groups, called the sun letters or solar letters ( ar, حروف شمسية ', mt, konsonanti xemxin) and moon letters or lunar letters (Arabic: ', mt, konsonanti qamrin), based on wh ...
Slate
Slate is a fine-grained, foliated, homogeneous metamorphic rock derived from an original shale-type sedimentary rock composed of clay or volcanic ash through low-grade regional metamorphism. It is the finest grained foliated metamorphic rock. ...