''Akelarre'' is the
Basque
Basque may refer to:
* Basques, an ethnic group of Spain and France
* Basque language, their language
Places
* Basque Country (greater region), the homeland of the Basque people with parts in both Spain and France
* Basque Country (autonomous co ...
term meaning
Witches' Sabbath
A Witches' Sabbath is a purported gathering of those believed to practice witchcraft and other rituals. The phrase became popular in the 20th century.
Origins
In 1668, Johannes Praetorius published his literary work "Blockes-Berges Verrichtu ...
(the place where witches hold their meetings). ''Akerra'' means male goat in the Basque language. Witches' sabbaths were envisioned as presided over by a goat.
The word has been loaned to
Castilian Spanish
In English, Castilian Spanish can mean the variety of Peninsular Spanish spoken in northern and central Spain, the standard form of Spanish, or Spanish from Spain in general. In Spanish, the term (Castilian) can either refer to the Spanish langu ...
(which uses the spelling ''Aquelarre''). It has been used in Castilian Spanish since the
witch trials
A witch-hunt, or a witch purge, is a search for people who have been labeled witches or a search for evidence of witchcraft. The Witch trials in the early modern period, classical period of witch-hunts in Early Modern Europe and European Colon ...
of the 17th century.
The word is most famous as the title of the
witchcraft painting by Goya in the
Museo del Prado, which depicts witches in the company of a huge male goat.
Etymology
The most common
etymology
Etymology ()The New Oxford Dictionary of English (1998) – p. 633 "Etymology /ˌɛtɪˈmɒlədʒi/ the study of the class in words and the way their meanings have changed throughout time". is the study of the history of the Phonological chan ...
proposed is that meaning
meadow
A meadow ( ) is an open habitat, or field, vegetated by grasses, herbs, and other non- woody plants. Trees or shrubs may sparsely populate meadows, as long as these areas maintain an open character. Meadows may be naturally occurring or arti ...
(''larre'') of the
male goat (''aker'' "buck, billy goat"). The
Spanish Inquisition
The Tribunal of the Holy Office of the Inquisition ( es, Tribunal del Santo Oficio de la Inquisición), commonly known as the Spanish Inquisition ( es, Inquisición española), was established in 1478 by the Catholic Monarchs, King Ferdinand ...
accused people of worshipping a black goat, related to the
worship of Satan. An alternative explanation could be that it originally was ''alkelarre'', ''alka'' being a local name for the
herb ''
Dactylis hispanica''. In this case, the first etymology would have been a manipulation of the Inquisition, the fact being that the Basques did not know during the 1609-1612 persecution period or later what the "akelarre" referred to by the inquisitors meant. The word "aquelarre" is first attested in 1609 in a Spanish-language inquisitorial briefing, as synonym to ''junta diabólica'', meaning 'diabolic assembly'. Basque terms, transcribed into Spanish texts often by monolingual Spanish-language copyists, were fraught with mistakes.
Nevertheless, the black he-Goat or ''Akerbeltz'' is known in
Basque mythology
The mythology of the ancient Basques largely did not survive the arrival of Christianity in the Basque Country between the 4th and 12th century AD. Most of what is known about elements of this original belief system is based on the analysis of ...
to be an attribute of goddess
Mari and is found in a Roman-age slab as a
votive
A votive offering or votive deposit is one or more objects displayed or deposited, without the intention of recovery or use, in a sacred place for religious purposes. Such items are a feature of modern and ancient societies and are generally ...
dedication: ''Aherbelts Deo'' ("to the god Aherbelts") (see:
Aquitanian language)..
Places called Akelarre
*Akelarre: a field of
Mañaria
Mañaria (both in Basque and Spanish) is an elizate, town and municipality located in the province of Biscay, in the Basque Country, Spain. Mañaria is part of the ''comarca'' of Durangaldea and has a population of 459 inhabitants as of 2006 acc ...
(
Biscay
Biscay (; eu, Bizkaia ; es, Vizcaya ) is a province of Spain and a historical territory of the Basque Country, heir of the ancient Lordship of Biscay, lying on the south shore of the eponymous bay. The capital and largest city is Bilbao.
B ...
).
*Akelarrenlezea: a large cave of
Zugarramurdi
Zugarramurdi is a town and municipality located in the province and autonomous community of Navarre in northern Spain. It passed into history as the setting of alleged occult activity featured in the infamous Basque witch trials held in Logroño ...
, (
Navarre). The witches met actually outside the cave in the place of Berroskoberro. Some say that the goat talked to its worshippers from a hole in the stone outside the cave. Inside the cave, the widest part measures 120 metres. The river of "hell" crosses along the centre of the cave. It has been eroding the floor of the cave for centuries, the ceiling of the cave is already 12 metres high. A limestone oven from the eighteenth century remains inside the biggest cave. Farmers found it useful to take more harvest out of the limestone oven. We can access another cave from the biggest cave: the cave of the Akelarre. The name of the cave derives from the meadow at the entrance of the cave. Akelarre used to be celebrated there. Further the river follows a deep gorge called "the cave of the witches".
Other expressive names used for sabbat meeting places in Basque culture include:
*''Eperlanda'': Partridges' field, in
Muxika
Muxika is a town and municipality located in the province of Biscay, in the autonomous community of Basque Country, northern Spain. It has a population of 1,465 inhabitants as of 2019 according to the Spanish National Statistics Institute
Spani ...
, (
Biscay
Biscay (; eu, Bizkaia ; es, Vizcaya ) is a province of Spain and a historical territory of the Basque Country, heir of the ancient Lordship of Biscay, lying on the south shore of the eponymous bay. The capital and largest city is Bilbao.
B ...
).
*''Dantzaleku'': Dancing place, between
Ataun and
Idiazabal
Idiazabal is a town and municipality in the Goierri region of the province of Gipuzkoa, in the autonomous community of the Basque Country, northern Spain.
The area has given its name to the renowned Idiazabal cheese of the region, one of the bes ...
(
Gipuzkoa
Gipuzkoa (, , ; es, Guipúzcoa ; french: Guipuscoa) is a province of Spain and a historical territory of the autonomous community of the Basque Country. Its capital city is Donostia-San Sebastián. Gipuzkoa shares borders with the French depa ...
).
*''Mandabiita'': in Ataun (Gipuzkoa).
*''Sorginzulo'': Witches' hole, in
Zegama
Zegama, popularly known as "The shadow of Aizkorri", is a town and municipality in the Goierri region of the province of Gipuzkoa, in the autonomous community of the Basque Country, northern Spain.
Nature and culture
Zegama's main characterist ...
and another one in Ataun, (both in Gipuzkoa).
*''Bekatu-larre'': Sinful meadow, in
Ziordia (
Navarre).
*''Sorgintxulo'': Witches' hole, a cave in
Hernani (Gipuzkoa).
*''Atsegin Soro'': Pleasure orchard. This was the name by which witches themselves called the field of Matxarena in
Errenteria
Errenteria ( eu, Errenteria/Orereta, es, Rentería) is a town located in the province of Gipuzkoa in the Basque Country (autonomous community), Basque Autonomous Community, in the north of Spain, near the French border. The river Oiartzun (rive ...
(Gipuzkoa), according to inquisitorial records.
*''Basajaunberro'': Site of
Basajaun
In Basque mythology, Basajaun (, "Lord of the Woods", plural: basajaunak, female basandere) is a huge, hairy hominid dwelling in the woods. They were thought to build megaliths, protect flocks of livestock, and teach skills such as agriculture ...
(the wild man of the woods), in
Auritz (Navarre).
*''Sorginerreka'': Witches' creek, in
Tolosa (Gipuzkoa).
*''Edar Iturri'': Beautiful Spring, in Tolosa (Gipuzkoa).
*''Sorginetxe'': Witches' house, in
Aia AIA or A.I.A. or Aia may refer to:
Aia
* Aia, a small town in the Basque province of Gipuzkoa, Spain
* Aia, current Kutaisi, ancient capital of Colchis
* Aia, another name for Aea (Malis), an ancient town in Greece
* ''Aia'', the collected ed ...
(Gipuzkoa).
*''Akerlanda'': Goat's meadow, in
Gautegiz Arteaga (Biscay).
*''Anboto'': in
Durango (Biscay).
*''Garaigorta'': in
Orozko
Orozko is a town and municipality located in the province of Biscay, in the autonomous community of Basque Country in northern Spain
, image_flag = Bandera de España.svg
, image_coat = Escudo de España (mazonado).svg
...
(Biscay).
*''Petralanda'': in
Dima (Biscay).
*''Urkitza'': in
Urizaharra (
Alava).
*''Abadelaueta'': in Etxaguen (
Zigoitia
Zigoitia (, es, Cigoitia ) is a municipality in the province of Álava, in the Basque Country, northern Spain. Its capital is the village of Ondategi. In 2013 the largest common grave from the Spanish Civil War in the Basque Country was excav ...
, Alava).
*''Irantzi'', ''Puilegi'', ''Mairubaratza'': in
Oiartzun (Gipuzkoa).
*
Larrun
Larrun (modern French: ''La Rhune'', IPA: a'run - 'good pasture', possibly a folk etymology, in French until the 20th century: ''Larhune'' ) is a mountain (905 m) at the western end of the Pyrenees. It is located on the border of France and Spa ...
mountain: Witches from
Bera
Bera may refer to:
Acronyms
* Bioelectric recognition assay, a method in electrophysiology
* Botswana Energy Regulatory Authority, an energy regulatory body in Botswana
* Brainstem evoked response audiometry, a screening test to monitor for heari ...
(Navarre),
Sara
Sara may refer to:
Arts, media and entertainment Film and television
* ''Sara'' (1992 film), 1992 Iranian film by Dariush Merhjui
* ''Sara'' (1997 film), 1997 Polish film starring Bogusław Linda
* ''Sara'' (2010 film), 2010 Sri Lankan Sinhal ...
and
Azkaine (
Lapurdi
Labourd ( eu, Lapurdi; la, Lapurdum; Gascon: ''Labord'') is a former French province and part of the present-day Pyrénées Atlantiques ''département''. It is one of the traditional Basque provinces, and identified as one of the territorial co ...
) gathered.
*
Jaizkibel
Jaizkibel is a mountain range of the Basque Country located east of Pasaia, north of Lezo and west of Hondarribia, in Spain, with at the highest point (peak Alleru). The range stretches south-west to north-east, where it plunges into the sea at ...
mountain: in
Hondarribia es, fuenterribense
, population_note =
, population_density_km2 = auto
, blank_name_sec1 = Official language(s)
, blank_info_sec1 = Basque, Spanish
, timezone = CET
, utc_offset = +1
, ti ...
(Gipuzkoa). The inquisition heard they celebrated Akelarre near the church of Santa Barbara. Local sayings believe that there were Akelarres in the bridges of Mendelu, Santa Engrazi and Puntalea.
History
From the point of view of anthropology, akelarres would be the remains of pagan rites that were celebrated in clandestinity due to its banning by religious authorities at that time.
Although some say the first Akelarres were held in
Classical Greece when women, naked and drunk, went up the mountain to celebrate parties without men, this identification is wrong, since they worshipped the God
Dionysus
In ancient Greek religion and myth, Dionysus (; grc, Διόνυσος ) is the god of the grape-harvest, winemaking, orchards and fruit, vegetation, fertility, insanity, ritual madness, religious ecstasy, festivity, and theatre. The Roma ...
and they were not witches.
Gossip about sorcerers' meetings spread in the
middle ages
In the history of Europe, the Middle Ages or medieval period lasted approximately from the late 5th to the late 15th centuries, similar to the post-classical period of global history. It began with the fall of the Western Roman Empire ...
. However, they probably referred to common women who had knowledge on properties of
medicinal herbs
Medicinal plants, also called medicinal herbs, have been discovered and used in traditional medicine practices since prehistoric times. Plants synthesize hundreds of chemical compounds for various functions, including defense and protection a ...
. The herb ''
Atropa belladonna'' has had an important meaning in the legend and symbology of the Akelarre.
Hallucinogens were commonly used during the rite in order to achieve ecstasy. It was dangerous to calculate the right dose when the used quantities approached the lethal quantity, and that is why some substances started being applied as an ointment in the vagina or in the anus. This could have given rise to notions of a sexual element in witch practices and/or the use of cauldrons to prepare magic potions and salves . It is possible that the ointment was applied to the vagina with a staff and this might explain the frequent depiction of witches as flying with a broomstick between their legs. Some species of toad are poisonous if they come in contact with human skin. The toad's skin is also a hallucinogen, and they also appear in popular beliefs. The same could happen with poisonous mushrooms, such as
amanita muscaria.
Zugarramurdi witch-hunt
In 1610, the
Spanish Inquisition
The Tribunal of the Holy Office of the Inquisition ( es, Tribunal del Santo Oficio de la Inquisición), commonly known as the Spanish Inquisition ( es, Inquisición española), was established in 1478 by the Catholic Monarchs, King Ferdinand ...
tribunal of
Logroño
Logroño () is the capital of the province of La Rioja, situated in northern Spain. Traversed in its northern part by the Ebro River, Logroño has historically been a place of passage, such as the Camino de Santiago. Its borders were disputed b ...
initiated
a large witch-hunt in
Zugarramurdi
Zugarramurdi is a town and municipality located in the province and autonomous community of Navarre in northern Spain. It passed into history as the setting of alleged occult activity featured in the infamous Basque witch trials held in Logroño ...
and villages around Navarre that resulted in 300 people being accused of practising witchcraft. They took 40 of them to Logroño and
burnt at the stake
Death by burning (also known as immolation) is an execution and murder method involving combustion or exposure to extreme heat. It has a long history as a form of public capital punishment, and many societies have employed it as a punishment ...
12 supposed witches in Zugarramurdi (5 of them symbolically, as they had been killed by torture earlier).
Julio Caro Baroja
Julio Caro Baroja (13 November 1914 – 18 August 1995) was a Spanish anthropologist, historian, linguist and essayist. He was known for his special interest in Basque culture, Basque history and Basque society. Of Basque ancestry, he was the ...
in his book ''The World of the Witches'' explains that Basque witchcraft is known due to this
witch-hunt
A witch-hunt, or a witch purge, is a search for people who have been labeled witches or a search for evidence of witchcraft. The classical period of witch-hunts in Early Modern Europe and Colonial America took place in the Early Modern per ...
, being one of the most infamous between the European witch-hunts. It was possibly as a result of these major trials that the term ''akelarre'' became synonymous with the word "witch's sabbath" and spread into common parlance in both Basque and Spanish.
While previous study of the Zugarramurdi trials has focused on the mechanics of persecution, more recent analysis by
Emma Wilby
Emma Wilby is a British historian and author specialising in the magical beliefs of Early Modern Britain.
Work
An honorary fellow in history at the University of Exeter, England, and a Fellow of the Royal Historical Society, she has published ...
has explored how the suspects themselves brought a wide range of belief and experience to their descriptions of the akelarre, from folk magical practices, communal medicine-making and confraternal meetings to popular expressions of Catholic religious ritual and theatre such as liturgical misrule and cursing masses.
[Wilby, Emma. ''Invoking the Akelarre: Voices of the Accused in the Basque Witch-Craze 1609-14''. Eastbourne: Sussex Academic Press, 2019. ]
Similar celebrations
Similar celebrations spread over the
Pyrenees mountains
The Pyrenees (; es, Pirineos ; french: Pyrénées ; ca, Pirineu ; eu, Pirinioak ; oc, Pirenèus ; an, Pirineus) is a mountain range straddling the border of France and Spain. It extends nearly from its union with the Cantabrian Mountains to C ...
in the
Basque Country,
Aragon,
Catalonia
Catalonia (; ca, Catalunya ; Aranese Occitan: ''Catalonha'' ; es, Cataluña ) is an autonomous community of Spain, designated as a '' nationality'' by its Statute of Autonomy.
Most of the territory (except the Val d'Aran) lies on the nort ...
and
Occitania
Occitania ( oc, Occitània , , or ) is the historical region in Western and Southern Europe where the Occitan language was historically spoken and where it is sometimes still used as a second language. This cultural area roughly encompasse ...
. Shepherds brought these beliefs on the way of their annual migration of sheep (
transhumance
Transhumance is a type of pastoralism or nomadism, a seasonal movement of livestock between fixed summer and winter pastures. In montane regions (''vertical transhumance''), it implies movement between higher pastures in summer and lower val ...
) from mountains to the flatlands.
* "Ajunt de Bruixes", in
Catalonia
Catalonia (; ca, Catalunya ; Aranese Occitan: ''Catalonha'' ; es, Cataluña ) is an autonomous community of Spain, designated as a '' nationality'' by its Statute of Autonomy.
Most of the territory (except the Val d'Aran) lies on the nort ...
, the most famous of all being celebrated in
Canigou
The Canigó ( ca, Canigó, french: Canigou ; la, mons Canigosus or Canigonis) is a mountain located in the Pyrenees of southern France.
The Canigó is located less than from the sea and has an elevation of . Due to its sharp flanks and its dra ...
mountain, origin of the storms that witches sent to the plain.
*
Turbon mountain, in
Huesca
Huesca (; an, Uesca) is a city in north-eastern Spain, within the autonomous community of Aragon. It is also the capital of the Spanish province of the same name and of the comarca of Hoya de Huesca. In 2009 it had a population of 52,059, almo ...
.
* The mountains on top of the village
Pals PALS may refer to:
* Patient Advice and Liaison Service
* Pediatric Advanced Life Support
* Periarteriolar lymphoid sheaths
* Portraits of American Life Study
* Positron Annihilation Lifetime Spectroscopy
* Pouch Attachment Ladder System
* Prag ...
, in
Girona
Girona (officially and in Catalan , Spanish: ''Gerona'' ) is a city in northern Catalonia, Spain, at the confluence of the Ter, Onyar, Galligants, and Güell rivers. The city had an official population of 103,369 in 2020. Girona is the capital ...
.
*
Macizo de Anaga in
Tenerife
Tenerife (; ; formerly spelled ''Teneriffe'') is the largest and most populous island of the Canary Islands. It is home to 43% of the total population of the archipelago. With a land area of and a population of 978,100 inhabitants as of Janu ...
,
Canary Islands.
* Salamanca cave, in
Salamanca
Salamanca () is a city in western Spain and is the capital of the Province of Salamanca in the autonomous community of Castile and León. The city lies on several rolling hills by the Tormes River. Its Old City was declared a UNESCO World Herit ...
.
See also
*
List of Spanish words of Basque origin
This is a list of Spanish words which are considered to be of Basque origin. Some of these words existed in Latin as loanwords from other languages. Some of these words have alternate etymologies and may also appear on a list of Spanish words fro ...
*
Basque witch trials
The Basque Witch Trials of the seventeenth century represent the last attempt at rooting out supposed witchcraft from Navarre by the Spanish Inquisition, after a series of episodes erupted during the sixteenth century following the end of milita ...
*
European witchcraft
Belief in witchcraft in Europe can be traced to classical antiquity and has continuous history during the Middle Ages, culminating in the Early Modern witch trials and giving rise to the fairy tale and popular culture "witch" stock character o ...
*
Pierre de Lancre, French witch-hunter
*
Sorginak
Sorginak ( root form: ''sorgin'', absolutive case (singular): ''sorgina'') are the assistants of the goddess Mari in Basque mythology. It is also the Basque name for witches, priests and priestesses, making it difficult to distinguish between t ...
(Basque witches)
*
Spanish Inquisition
The Tribunal of the Holy Office of the Inquisition ( es, Tribunal del Santo Oficio de la Inquisición), commonly known as the Spanish Inquisition ( es, Inquisición española), was established in 1478 by the Catholic Monarchs, King Ferdinand ...
*
Tomás de Torquemada, leader of the Spanish inquisition
*
Witch-hunt
A witch-hunt, or a witch purge, is a search for people who have been labeled witches or a search for evidence of witchcraft. The classical period of witch-hunts in Early Modern Europe and Colonial America took place in the Early Modern per ...
*
Witch trial
A witch-hunt, or a witch purge, is a search for people who have been labeled witches or a search for evidence of witchcraft. The classical period of witch-hunts in Early Modern Europe and Colonial America took place in the Early Modern perio ...
*
Witchcraft
Witchcraft traditionally means the use of magic or supernatural powers to harm others. A practitioner is a witch. In medieval and early modern Europe, where the term originated, accused witches were usually women who were believed to have ...
References
Sources
*''Brujería en el País Vasco'', José Dueso, Orain S.A., 1996.
*''Guía del Akelarre Vasco'', José Dueso, ROGER Ed., 2000.
{{DEFAULTSORT:Akelarre (Witchcraft)
Basque mythology
Spanish mythology
Witchcraft in Spain