Aircraft hijacking (also known as airplane hijacking, skyjacking, plane hijacking, plane jacking, air robbery, air piracy, or aircraft piracy, with the last term used within the special aircraft
jurisdiction of the United States) is the
unlawful seizure of an
aircraft by an individual or a group. Dating from the earliest of hijackings, most cases involve the
pilot being forced to fly according to the hijacker's demands. There have also been incidents where the hijackers have overpowered the flight crew, made unauthorized entry into cockpit and
flown them into buildingsmost notably in the
September 11 attacksand in several cases, planes have been hijacked by the official pilot or co-pilot; e.g.,
Germanwings Flight 9525.
Unlike
carjacking or sea
piracy, an aircraft hijacking is not usually committed for robbery or theft. Individuals driven by personal gain often divert planes to destinations where they are not planning to go themselves.
Some hijackers intend to use passengers or crew as
hostages, either for
monetary ransom or for some political or administrative concession by authorities. Various motives have driven such occurrences, such as demanding the release of certain high-profile individuals or for the right of
political asylum (notably Flight
ET 961), but sometimes a hijacking may have been affected by a failed private life or financial distress, as in the case of Aarno Lamminparras in the
Oulu Aircraft Hijacking
Finnair Flight 405 was a scheduled domestic passenger flight between Oulu and Helsinki, Finland, that was hijacked on September 30, 1978. The Finnair Sud Aviation Caravelle with 44 passengers and 5 crew aboard was hijacked by an unemployed home ...
. Hijackings involving hostages have produced violent confrontations between hijackers and the authorities, during
negotiation and settlement. In the case of
Lufthansa Flight 181 and
Air France Flight 139, the hijackers were not satisfied and showed no inclination to surrender, resulting in attempts by
special forces
Special forces and special operations forces (SOF) are military units trained to conduct special operations. NATO has defined special operations as "military activities conducted by specially designated, organized, selected, trained and equip ...
to rescue passengers.
In most jurisdictions of the world, aircraft hijacking is punishable by life imprisonment or a long prison sentence. In most jurisdictions where the death penalty is a legal punishment, aircraft hijacking is a
capital crime
Capital punishment, also known as the death penalty, is the state-sanctioned practice of deliberately killing a person as a punishment for an actual or supposed crime, usually following an authorized, rule-governed process to conclude that t ...
, including in China, India, Liberia and the U.S. states of
Georgia and
Mississippi.
History
Airplane hijackings have occurred since the early days of flight. These can be classified in the following eras: 1929–1957, 1958–1979, 1980–2000 and 2001–present. Early incidents involved light planes, but this later involved passenger aircraft as
commercial aviation became widespread.
1929–1957
Between 1929 and 1957, there were fewer than 20 incidents of reported hijackings worldwide; several occurred in
Eastern Europe.
One of the first unconfirmed hijackings occurred in December 1929. J. Howard "Doc" DeCelles was flying a postal route for a Mexican firm, Transportes Aeras Transcontinentales, ferrying mail from
San Luis Potosí
San Luis Potosí (), officially the Free and Sovereign State of San Luis Potosí ( es, Estado Libre y Soberano de San Luis Potosí), is one of the 32 states which compose the Federal Entities of Mexico. It is divided in 58 municipalities and i ...
to
Torreon and then on to
Guadalajara
Guadalajara ( , ) is a metropolis in western Mexico and the capital of the list of states of Mexico, state of Jalisco. According to the 2020 census, the city has a population of 1,385,629 people, making it the 7th largest city by population in Me ...
. A lieutenant named
Saturnino Cedillo
Saturnino Cedillo Martínez (November 29, 1890 in Ciudad del Maíz, San Luis Potosí - January 11, 1939 in Sierra Ventana, San Luis Potosí) was a Mexican politician who participated in the Mexican Revolution and the Cristero War. He was governor ...
, the governor of the state of San Luis Potosí, ordered him to divert. Several other men were also involved, and through an interpreter, DeCelles had no choice but to comply. He was allegedly held captive for several hours under armed guard before being released.
The first recorded aircraft hijack took place on February 21, 1931, in
Arequipa
Arequipa (; Aymara and qu, Ariqipa) is a city and capital of province and the eponymous department of Peru. It is the seat of the Constitutional Court of Peru and often dubbed the "legal capital of Peru". It is the second most populated city ...
, Peru. Byron Richards, flying a
Ford Tri-Motor
The Ford Trimotor (also called the "Tri-Motor", and nicknamed the "Tin Goose") is an American three-engined transport aircraft. Production started in 1925 by the companies of Henry Ford and ended on June 7, 1933, after 199 had been made. It w ...
, was approached on the ground by armed revolutionaries. He refused to fly them anywhere during a 10-day standoff. Richards was informed that the revolution was successful and he could be freed in return for flying one of the men to
Lima.
The following year, in September 1932, a
Sikorsky S-38 with registration P-BDAD, still bearing the titles of
Nyrba do Brasil was seized in the company's hangar by three men, who took a fourth as a hostage. Despite having no flying experience, they managed to take off. However, the aircraft crashed in
São João de Meriti, killing the four men. Apparently, the hijack was related to the events of the
Constitutionalist Revolution in São Paulo; it is considered to be the first hijack that took place in Brazil.
On October 28, 1939, the first murder on a plane took place in
Brookfield, Missouri, US. The victim was Carl Bivens, a flight instructor, who was teaching a man named Earnest P. "Larry" Pletch. While airborne in a
Taylor Cub
The Taylor Cub was originally designed by C. Gilbert Taylor as a small, light and simple utility aircraft, evolved from the Arrowing Chummy. It is the forefather of the popular Piper J-3 Cub, and total production of the Cub series was 23,512 ...
monoplane, Pletch shot Bivens twice in the back of the head. Pletch later told prosecutors, "Carl was telling me I had a natural ability and I should follow that line", adding, "I had a revolver in my pocket and without saying a word to him, I took it out of my overalls and I fired a bullet into the back of his head. He never knew what struck him." The ''
Chicago Daily Tribune'' stated it was one of the most spectacular crimes of the 20th century. Pletch pleaded guilty and was sentenced to life in prison. However, he was released on March 1, 1957, after serving 17 years, and lived until June 2001.
In 1942 near Malta, two New Zealanders, a South African and an Englishman achieved the first confirmed in-air hijack when they overpowered their captors aboard an Italian seaplane that was flying them to a
prisoner-of-war camp. As they approached an
Allied
An alliance is a relationship among people, groups, or states that have joined together for mutual benefit or to achieve some common purpose, whether or not explicit agreement has been worked out among them. Members of an alliance are called ...
base, they were strafed by
Supermarine Spitfire
The Supermarine Spitfire is a British single-seat fighter aircraft used by the Royal Air Force and other Allied countries before, during, and after World War II. Many variants of the Spitfire were built, from the Mk 1 to the Rolls-Royce Grif ...
s unaware of the aircraft's true operators and forced to land on the water. However, all on board survived to be picked up by a British boat.
In the years following
World War II, Philip Baum, an
aviation security
Airport security includes the techniques and methods used in an attempt to protect passengers, staff, aircraft, and airport property from malicious harm, crime, terrorism, and other threats.
Aviation security is a combination of measures and hum ...
expert suggests that the development of a rebellious youth "piggybacking on to any cause which challenged the status quo or acted in support of those deemed oppressed", may have been a contributor to attacks against the aviation field.
The first hijacking of a commercial flight occurred on the
Cathay Pacific
Cathay Pacific Airways Limited (CPA), more widely known as Cathay Pacific (), is the flag carrier of Hong Kong, with its head office and main hub located at Hong Kong International Airport. The airline's operations and subsidiaries have sc ...
''
Miss Macao
''Miss Macao'' () was a Catalina seaplane owned by Cathay Pacific and operated by subsidiary Macau Air Transport Company. On 16 July 1948 it was involved in the first hijacking of a commercial aircraft. Piracy for robbery and ransom was ...
'' on July 16, 1948. After this incident and others in the 1950s, airlines recommended that flight crews comply with the hijackers' demands rather than risk a violent confrontation.
There were also various hijacking incidents and assaults on planes in
China
China, officially the People's Republic of China (PRC), is a country in East Asia. It is the world's most populous country, with a population exceeding 1.4 billion, slightly ahead of India. China spans the equivalent of five time zones and ...
and the Middle East.
On 23 July 1956, in the
Hungarian People's Republic, seven passengers hijacked a domestic flight of
Malév Hungarian Airlines
MALÉV Ltd. ( hu, Malév Zrt.), which did business as MALÉV Hungarian Airlines ( hu, Magyar Légiközlekedési Vállalat, abbreviated ''MALÉV'', ), was the flag carrier of Hungary from 1946 until 2012. Its head office was in Budapest, with i ...
, a
Lisunov Li-2 (registration HA-LIG), to escape from behind the
Iron Curtain
The Iron Curtain was the political boundary dividing Europe into two separate areas from the end of World War II in 1945 until the end of the Cold War in 1991. The term symbolizes the efforts by the Soviet Union (USSR) to block itself and its s ...
, and flew it to
West Germany. The aircraft landed safely at Ingolstadt Air Base without injuries.
The first hijacking of a flight for political reasons happened in Bolivia, affecting the airline
Lloyd Aereo Boliviano
Lloyd, Lloyd's, or Lloyds may refer to:
People
* Lloyd (name), a variation of the Welsh word ' or ', which means "grey" or "brown"
** List of people with given name Lloyd
** List of people with surname Lloyd
* Lloyd (singer) (born 1986), American ...
on September 26, 1956. The
DC-4 was carrying 47 prisoners who were being transported from
Santa Cruz, Bolivia
Santa Cruz de la Sierra (; "Holy Cross of the Mountain Range"), commonly known as Santa Cruz, is the largest city in Bolivia and the capital of the Santa Cruz Department (Bolivia), Santa Cruz department.
Situated on the Pirai River (Bolivia), P ...
, to El Alto, in
La Paz
La Paz (), officially known as Nuestra Señora de La Paz (Spanish pronunciation: ), is the seat of government of the Bolivia, Plurinational State of Bolivia. With an estimated 816,044 residents as of 2020, La Paz is the List of Bolivian cities ...
. A political group was waiting to take them to a concentration camp located in Carahuara de Carangas,
Oruro. The 47 prisoners overpowered the crew and gained control of the aircraft while airborne and diverted the plane to
. Prisoners took control of the aircraft and received instructions to again fly to
Salta, Argentina
Salta () is the capital and largest city in the Argentine province of the same name. With a population of 618,375 according to the 2010 census, it is also the 7th most-populous city in Argentina. The city serves as the cultural and economic ce ...
, as the airfield in Tartagal was not big enough. Upon landing, they told the government of the
injustice they were subjected to, and received
political asylum.
On October 22, 1956,
French forces hijacked a Moroccan airplane carrying leaders of the Algerian
National Liberation Front (FLN) during the ongoing
Algerian War
The Algerian War, also known as the Algerian Revolution or the Algerian War of Independence,( ar, الثورة الجزائرية '; '' ber, Tagrawla Tadzayrit''; french: Guerre d'Algérie or ') and sometimes in Algeria as the War of 1 November ...
.
The plane, which was carrying
Ahmed Ben Bella,
Hocine Aït Ahmed
Hocine Aït Ahmed ( ar, حسين آيت أحمد; 20 August 1926 – 23 December 2015) was an Algerian politician. He was founder and leader until 2009 of the historical political opposition in Algeria.
Life
Aït Ahmed was born at Aï ...
, and
Mohamed Boudiaf, was destined to leave from
Palma de Mallorca
Palma (; ; also known as ''Palma de Mallorca'', officially between 1983–88, 2006–08, and 2012–16) is the capital and largest city of the Autonomous communities of Spain, autonomous community of the Balearic Islands in Spain. It is situate ...
for
Tunis where the FLN leaders were to conference with Prime Minister
Habib Bourguiba
Habib Bourguiba (; ar, الحبيب بورقيبة, al-Ḥabīb Būrqībah; 3 August 19036 April 2000) was a Tunisian lawyer, nationalist leader and statesman who led the country from 1956 to 1957 as the prime minister of the Kingdom of T ...
, but French forces redirected the flight to occupied
Algiers
Algiers ( ; ar, الجزائر, al-Jazāʾir; ber, Dzayer, script=Latn; french: Alger, ) is the capital and largest city of Algeria. The city's population at the 2008 Census was 2,988,145Census 14 April 2008: Office National des Statistiques ...
, where the FLN leaders were arrested.
1958–1979
Between 1958 and 1967, there were approximately 40 hijackings worldwide.
Beginning in 1958, hijackings from
Cuba to other destinations started to occur; in 1961, hijackings from other destinations to Cuba became prevalent.
The first happened on May 1, 1961, on a flight from
Miami to
Key West
Key West ( es, Cayo Hueso) is an island in the Straits of Florida, within the U.S. state of Florida. Together with all or parts of the separate islands of Dredgers Key, Fleming Key, Sunset Key, and the northern part of Stock Island, it cons ...
. The perpetrator, armed with a knife and gun, forced the captain to land in Cuba.
Australia was relatively untouched by the threat of hijackings until July 19, 1960. On that evening, a 22-year-old Russian man attempted to divert
Trans Australia Airlines Flight 408 to
Darwin
Darwin may refer to:
Common meanings
* Charles Darwin (1809–1882), English naturalist and writer, best known as the originator of the theory of biological evolution by natural selection
* Darwin, Northern Territory, a territorial capital city i ...
or
Singapore.
The crew were able to subdue the man after a brief struggle.
According to the FAA, in the 1960s, there were 100 attempts of hijackings involving U.S. aircraft: 77 successful and 23 unsuccessful.
Recognizing the danger early, the
FAA issued a directive on July 28, 1961, which prohibits unauthorized persons from carrying concealed
firearm
A firearm is any type of gun designed to be readily carried and used by an individual. The term is legally defined further in different countries (see Legal definitions).
The first firearms originated in 10th-century China, when bamboo tubes ...
s and interfering with crew member duties.
The
Federal Aviation Act of 1958 was amended to impose severe penalties for those seizing control of a commercial aircraft.
Airlines could also refuse to transport passengers who were likely to cause danger. That same year, the FAA and
Department of Justice created the
Peace Officers Program which put trained marshals on flights.
A few years later, on May 7, 1964, the FAA adopted a rule requiring that
cockpit
A cockpit or flight deck is the area, usually near the front of an aircraft or spacecraft, from which a Pilot in command, pilot controls the aircraft.
The cockpit of an aircraft contains flight instruments on an instrument panel, and the ...
doors on commercial aircraft be kept locked at all times.
In a five-year period (1968–1972) the world experienced 326 hijack attempts, or one every 5.6 days.
The incidents were frequent and often just an inconvenience, which resulted in
television shows creating parodies.
''Time'' magazine even ran a lighthearted comedy piece called "What to Do When the Hijacker Comes". Most incidents occurred in the United States. There were two distinct types: hijackings for transportation elsewhere and hijackings for
extortion with the threat of harm.
Between 1968 and 1972, there were 90 recorded transport attempts to Cuba. In contrast, there were 26 extortion attempts (see table on the right). The longest and first transcontinental (Los Angeles, Denver, New York, Bangor, Shannon and Rome) hijacking from the US started on 31 October 1969.
The Eastern Air Lines Shuttle flight 1320 on May 17, 1970, witnessed the first fatality in the course of a U.S. hijacking.
Incidents also became problematic outside of the U.S. For instance, in 1968,
El Al Flight 426
El Al Flight 426 was an El Al passenger flight hijacked on July 23, 1968 by three members of the Popular Front for the Liberation of Palestine (PFLP), setting off a wave of hijackings by the PFLP. Scholars have characterized the hijacking as si ...
was seized by
Popular Front for the Liberation of Palestine (PFLP) militants on 23 July, an incident which lasted 40 days, making it one of the longest. This record was later beaten in 1999.
As a result of the evolving threat,
President Nixon issued a directive in 1970 to promote security at airports, electronic surveillance and multilateral agreements for tackling the problem.
The
International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO) issued a report on aircraft hijacking in July 1970. Beginning in 1969 until the end of June 1970, there were 118 incidents of unlawful seizure of aircraft and 14 incidents of sabotage and armed attacks against civil aviation. This involved airlines of 47 countries and more than 7,000 passengers. In this period, 96 people were killed and 57 were injured as a result of hijacking, sabotage and armed attacks.
The ICAO stated that this is not isolated to one nation or one region, but a worldwide issue to the safe growth of international
civil aviation. Incidents also became notoriousin 1971, a man known as
D. B. Cooper
D. B. Cooper is a media epithet for an unidentified man who hijacked Northwest Orient Airlines Flight 305, a Boeing 727 aircraft operated by Northwest Orient Airlines, in United States airspace on November 24, 1971. During the flight from Portla ...
hijacked a plane and extorted US$200,000 in ransom before parachuting over Oregon. He was never identified.
On August 20, 1971, a
Pakistan Air Force T-33
The Lockheed T-33 Shooting Star (or T-Bird) is an American subsonic jet trainer. It was produced by Lockheed and made its first flight in 1948. The T-33 was developed from the Lockheed P-80/F-80 starting as TP-80C/TF-80C in development, then d ...
military plane was hijacked prior the
Indo-Pakistani war of 1971 in
Karachi.
Lieutenant Matiur Rahman attacked
Officer Rashid Minhas
Pilot Officer Rashid Minhas ( ur, ) was a Pakistani pilot in the Pakistan Air Force. Minhas was the only PAF officer to receive the highest valour award, the Nishan-e-Haider. He was also the youngest person and the shortest-serving officer ...
and attempted to land in India. Minhas deliberately crashed the plane into the ground near
Thatta to prevent the diversion.
Countries around the world continued their efforts to tackle crimes committed on-board planes. The
Tokyo Convention, drafted in 1958, established an agreement between signatories that the "state in which the aircraft is registered is competent to exercise jurisdiction over crimes committed on board that aircraft while it is in flight".
While the Convention does not make hijacking an international crime, it does contain provisions which obligate the country in which a hijacked aircraft lands to restore the aircraft to its responsible owner, and allow the passengers and crew to continue their journey.
The Convention came into force in December 1969.
A year later, in December 1970, the
Hague Convention was drafted which punishes hijackers, enabling each state to prosecute a hijacker if that state does not extradite them, and to deprive them from asylum from prosecution.
On December 5, 1972, the
FAA issued emergency rules requiring all passengers and their carry-on baggage to be screened.
Airports slowly implemented walk-through
metal detectors, hand-searches and
X-ray machines, to prohibit weapons and explosive devices.
These rules came into effect on January 5, 1973, and were welcomed by most of the public.
In 1974, Congress enacted a statute which provided for the death penalty for acts of aircraft piracy resulting in death. Between 1968 and 1977, there were approximately 41 hijackings per year.
1980–2000
By 1980, airport screening and greater cooperation from the international community led to fewer successful hijackings; the number of events had significantly dropped below the 1968 level. Between 1978 and 1988, there were roughly 26 incidents of hijackings a year.
A new threat emerged in the 1980s:
organised terrorists destroying aircraft to draw attention. For instance, terrorist groups were responsible for the bombing of
Air India Flight 182 over the Irish coast. In 1988,
Pan Am Flight 103
Pan Am Flight 103 was a regularly scheduled Pan Am transatlantic flight from Frankfurt to Detroit via a stopover in London and another in New York City. The transatlantic leg of the route was operated by ''Clipper Maid of the Seas'', a Boeing ...
was bombed flying over Scotland.
Terrorist activity which included hijack attempts in the Middle East were also a cause of concern.
During the 1990s, there was relative peace in the United States airspace as the threat of domestic hijacking was seen as a distant memory.
Globally, however, hijackings still persisted. Between 1993 and 2003, the highest number of hijackings occurred in 1993 (see table below). This number can be attributed to events in
China
China, officially the People's Republic of China (PRC), is a country in East Asia. It is the world's most populous country, with a population exceeding 1.4 billion, slightly ahead of India. China spans the equivalent of five time zones and ...
where hijackers were trying to gain political asylum in Taiwan.
Europe and the rest of
East Asia were not immune either. On December 26, 1994,
Air France Flight 8969
Air France Flight 8969 was an Air France flight that was hijacked on 24 December 1994 by the Armed Islamic Group of Algeria (GIA) at Houari Boumediene Airport, Algiers. The terrorists murdered three passengers and their intention was either t ...
with 172 passengers and crew was hijacked after leaving
Algiers
Algiers ( ; ar, الجزائر, al-Jazāʾir; ber, Dzayer, script=Latn; french: Alger, ) is the capital and largest city of Algeria. The city's population at the 2008 Census was 2,988,145Census 14 April 2008: Office National des Statistiques ...
. Authorities believed that the goal was to crash the plane into the
Eiffel Tower. On June 21, 1995,
All Nippon Airways Flight 857
All Nippon Airways Flight 857 was a scheduled flight from Tokyo Haneda Airport to Hakodate Airport that was hijacked by a lone individual on June 21, 1995. The aircraft was boarded by police the next morning following an over-night standoff, in th ...
was hijacked by a man claiming to be a member of the
Aum Shinrikyo religious cult, demanding the release of its imprisoned leader
Shoko Asahara. The incident was resolved when the police stormed the plane.
On October 17, 1996, the first hijacking that was brought to an end while airborne was carried out by four operatives of the
Austrian
special law enforcement unit Cobra on a
Russian Aeroflot
PJSC AeroflotRussian Airlines (russian: ПАО "Аэрофло́т — Росси́йские авиали́нии", ), commonly known as Aeroflot ( or ; russian: Аэрофлот, , ), is the flag carrier and the largest airline of Russia. The ...
flight from
Malta to
Lagos,
Nigeria, aboard a
Tupolev Tu-154. The operatives escorted inmates detained for deportation to their homelands and were equipped with weapons and gloves. On 12 April 1999, six
ELN members hijacked a
Fokker 50
The Fokker 50 is a turboprop-powered airliner, designed as an improved version of the successful Fokker F27 Friendship. The Fokker 60 is a stretched freighter version of the Fokker 50. Both aircraft were manufactured and supported by Dutch airc ...
of
Avianca Flight 9463, flying from
Bucaramanga to
Bogotá
Bogotá (, also , , ), officially Bogotá, Distrito Capital, abbreviated Bogotá, D.C., and formerly known as Santa Fe de Bogotá (; ) during the Spanish period and between 1991 and 2000, is the capital city of Colombia, and one of the larges ...
. Many hostages were held for more than a year, and the last hostage was finally freed 19 months after the hijacking.
2001–present
On September 11, 2001, four airliners were hijacked by 19
Al-Qaeda
Al-Qaeda (; , ) is an Islamic extremism, Islamic extremist organization composed of Salafist jihadists. Its members are mostly composed of Arab, Arabs, but also include other peoples. Al-Qaeda has mounted attacks on civilian and military ta ...
extremists:
American Airlines Flight 11,
United Airlines Flight 175,
American Airlines Flight 77
American Airlines Flight 77 was a scheduled American Airlines domestic transcontinental passenger flight from Washington Dulles International Airport in Dulles, Virginia, to Los Angeles International Airport in Los Angeles, California. The Boe ...
and
United Airlines Flight 93. The first two planes were deliberately crashed into the Twin Towers of the
World Trade Center and the third was crashed into
The Pentagon building. The fourth crashed in a field in
Stonycreek Township Stonycreek Township may refer to the following places:
* Stonycreek Township, Somerset County, Pennsylvania
* Stonycreek Township, Cambria County, Pennsylvania
See also
*Stoney Creek Township (disambiguation)
*Stonycreek (disambiguation) Stonycree ...
near
Shanksville, Pennsylvania after crew and passengers attempted to overpower the hijackers. Authorities believe that the intended target was the
U.S. Capitol. In total,
2,996 people perished and more than 6,000 were injured in the attacks, making the hijackings the deadliest in modern history.
Following the attacks, the U.S. government formed the
Transportation Security Administration (TSA) to handle airport screening at U.S. airports. Government agencies around the world tightened their airport security, procedures and intelligence gathering.
Until the September 11 attacks, there had never been an incident whereby a passenger aircraft was used as a weapon of mass destruction. The
9/11 Commission
The National Commission on Terrorist Attacks Upon the United States, also known as the 9/11 Commission, was set up on November 27, 2002, "to prepare a full and complete account of the circumstances surrounding the September 11 attacks", includin ...
report stated that it was always assumed that a "hijacking would take the traditional form";
therefore, airline crews never had a contingency plan for a suicide-hijacking.
As Patrick Smith, an airline pilot, summarizes:
Throughout the mid-2000s, hijackings still occurred but there were much fewer incidents and casualties. The number of incidents had been declining, even before the September 11 attacks. One notable incident in 2006 was the hijacking of
Turkish Airlines Flight 1476
Turkish Airlines Flight 1476 (TK1476) was a Turkish Airlines Boeing 737 Classic, Boeing 737-4Y0 flying from Tirana to Istanbul that was Aircraft hijacking, hijacked by Hakan Ekinci in Greek airspace on 3 October 2006. Ekinci demanded to go to Rome ...
, flying from
Tirana to
Istanbul, which was seized by a man named Hakan Ekinci. The aircraft, with 107 passengers and 6 crew, made distress calls to
air traffic control and the plane was escorted by military aircraft before landing safely at
Brindisi
Brindisi ( , ) ; la, Brundisium; grc, Βρεντέσιον, translit=Brentésion; cms, Brunda), group=pron is a city in the region of Apulia in southern Italy, the capital of the province of Brindisi, on the coast of the Adriatic Sea.
Histo ...
, Italy. In 2007, several incidents occurred in the Middle East and
Northern Africa; hijackers in one of these incidents claimed to be affiliated with
Al-Qaeda
Al-Qaeda (; , ) is an Islamic extremism, Islamic extremist organization composed of Salafist jihadists. Its members are mostly composed of Arab, Arabs, but also include other peoples. Al-Qaeda has mounted attacks on civilian and military ta ...
. Towards the end of the decade,
AeroMexico experienced its first terror incident when
Flight 576 was hijacked by a man demanding to speak with
President Calderón
Calderón () is a Spanish and Sefardi occupational surname. It is derived from the Vulgar Latin "''caldaria''" ("cauldron") and refers to the occupation of tinker.
Calderón, or Calderon, may refer to:
* Alberto Calderón, Argentine mathematician ...
.
Since 2010, the
Aviation Safety Network estimates there have been 15 hijackings worldwide with three fatalities. This is a considerably lower figure than in previous decades which can be attributed to greater security enhancements and awareness of September 11–style attacks.
On June 29, 2012, an attempt was made to hijack
Tianjin Airlines Flight GS7554
Tianjin Airlines Flight 7554 () was a scheduled passenger flight between Hotan and Ürümqi in China's Xinjiang Autonomous Region. The aircraft operating this route on 29 June 2012, an Embraer 190, took off from Hotan at 12:25 pm; within t ...
from
Hotan
Hotan (also known as Gosthana, Gaustana, Godana, Godaniya, Khotan, Hetian, Hotien) is a major oasis town in southwestern Xinjiang, an autonomous region in Western China. The city proper of Hotan broke off from the larger Hotan County to become ...
to
Ürümqi in China. More recently was the 2016 hijacking of
EgyptAir
Egyptair (Egyptian Arabic
Egyptian Arabic, locally known as Colloquial Egyptian ( ar, العامية المصرية, ), or simply Masri (also Masry) (), is the most widely spoken vernacular Arabic dialect in Egypt. It is part of the Afro-A ...
Flight MS181, involving an Egyptian man who claimed to have a bomb and ordered the plane to land in
Cyprus. He surrendered several hours later, after freeing the passengers and crew.
Countermeasures
As a result of the large number of U.S.–Cuba hijackings in the late 1960s to early 1970s, international airports introduced screening technology such as metal detectors,
X-ray machines and
explosive detection tools. In the U.S, these rules were enforced starting from January 1973
and were eventually copied around the world. These security measures did make hijacking a "higher-risk proposition" and deter criminals in later decades. Until September 2001, the
FAA set and enforced a "layered" system of defense: hijacking intelligence, passenger pre-screening, checkpoint screening and on-board security. The idea was that if one layer were later to fail, another would be able stop a hijacker from boarding a plane. However, the
9/11 Commission
The National Commission on Terrorist Attacks Upon the United States, also known as the 9/11 Commission, was set up on November 27, 2002, "to prepare a full and complete account of the circumstances surrounding the September 11 attacks", includin ...
found that this layered approach was flawed and unsuitable to prevent the September 11 attacks. The U.S
Transportation Security Administration has since strengthened this approach, with a greater emphasis on intelligence sharing.
On-board security
In the history of hijackings, most incidents involved planes being forced to land at a certain destination with demands. As a result, commercial airliners adopted a "total compliance" rule which taught pilots and
cabin crew to comply with the hijackers' demands.
Crews advise passengers to sit quietly to increase their chances of survival. The ultimate goal is to land the plane safely and let the
security forces handle the situation. The
FAA suggested that the longer a hijacking persisted, the more likely it would end peacefully with the hijackers reaching their goal. Although total compliance is still relevant, the events of September 11 changed this paradigm as this technique cannot prevent a murder-suicide hijacking.
After the
September 11 attacks, it became evident that each hijacking situation needs to be evaluated on a case-by-case basis. Cabin crew, now aware of the severe consequences, have a greater responsibility for maintaining control of their aircraft. Most airlines also give crew members training in self-defense tactics. Ever since the 1970s, crew are taught to be vigilant for suspicious behaviour. For example, passengers who have no carry-on luggage, or are standing next to the cockpit door with fidgety movements. There have been various incidents when crew and passengers intervened to prevent attacks: on December 22, 2001,
Richard Reid attempted to ignite explosives on
American Airlines Flight 63. In 2009, on
Northwest Flight 253
The attempted bombing of Northwest Airlines Flight 253 occurred on December 25, 2009, aboard an Airbus A330 as it prepared to land at Detroit Metropolitan Airport following a transatlantic flight from Amsterdam. Attributed to the terrori ...
,
Umar Farouk Abdulmutallab attempted to detonate explosives sewn into his underwear. In 2012, the attempted hijacking of
Tianjin Airlines Flight 7554 was stopped when cabin crew placed a trolley in-front of the cockpit door and asked passengers for help.
American Airlines Flight 11
In the September 11 attacks, crew on one of the hijacked planes went beyond their scope of training by informing the airline
ground crew about the events on board. In separate phone calls,
Amy Sweeney and
Betty Ong provided information on seat numbers of the attackers and passenger injuries. This helped authorities identify them.
Cockpit security
As early as 1964, the
FAA required cockpit doors on commercial aircraft be kept locked during flight.
In 2002,
U.S. Congress passed the Arming Pilots Against Terrorism Act, allowing pilots at U.S. airlines to carry guns in the cockpit. Since 2003, these pilots are known as
Federal Flight Deck Officer
A Federal Flight Deck Officer (FFDO) is a Part 121 Airline Pilot who is trained and licensed to carry weapons and defend commercial aircraft against criminal activity and terrorism. The Federal Flight Deck Officer program is run by the Federal Air ...
s. It is estimated that one in 10 of the 125,000 commercial pilots are trained and armed. Also in 2002, aircraft manufacturers such as
Airbus introduced a reinforced cockpit door which is resistant to gunfire and forced entry. Shortly afterwards, the FAA required operators of more than 6,000 aircraft to install tougher cockpit doors by April 9, 2003.
Rules were also tightened to restrict cockpit access and make it easier for pilots to lock the doors. In 2015,
Germanwings Flight 9525 was seized by the co-pilot and deliberately crashed, while the captain was out. The captain was unable to re-enter the cockpit, because the airline had already reinforced the cockpit door. The
European Aviation Safety Agency issued a recommendation for airlines to ensure that at least two people, one pilot and a member of cabin crew, occupy the cockpit during flight. The FAA in the United States enforce a similar rule.
Air marshal service
Some countries operate a marshal service, which puts members of
law enforcement on high-risk flights based on intelligence.
Their role is to keep passengers safe, by preventing hijackings and other criminal acts committed on a plane.
Federal marshals
The United States Marshals Service (USMS) is a federal law enforcement agency in the United States. The USMS is a bureau within the U.S. Department of Justice, operating under the direction of the Attorney General, but serves as the enforceme ...
in the U.S. are required to identify themselves before boarding a plane; marshals of other countries often are not. According to the
Congressional Research Service, the budget for the U.S. Federal Air Marshal Service was US$719 million in 2007.
Marshals often sit as regular passengers, at the front of the plane to allow observation of the cockpit. Despite the expansion of the marshal service, they cannot be on every plane, and they rarely face a real threat on a flight. Critics have questioned the need for them.
Air traffic control
There is no generic or set of rules for handling a hijacking situation.
Air traffic controllers are expected to exercise their best judgement and expertise when dealing with the apparent consequences of an unlawful interference or hijack.
Depending on the jurisdiction, the controller will inform authorities, such as the military, who will escort the hijacked plane. Controllers are expected to keep communications to a minimum and clear the
runway for a possible landing.
Legislation for downing hijacked aircraft
Germany
In January 2005, a federal law came into force in
Germany, called the
Luftsicherheitsgesetz The Luftsicherheitsgesetz (German for ''Aviation Security Act'') is a German law created in response to the September 11, 2001 attacks which came into force on 2005-01-15. § 14 (3) would have granted the Bundeswehr permission to use weapons agains ...
, which allows "direct action by armed force" against a hijacked aircraft to prevent a September 11–style attack. However, in February 2006 the
Federal Constitutional Court of Germany struck down these provisions of the law, stating such preventive measures were unconstitutional and would essentially be state-sponsored murder, even if such an act would save many more lives on the ground. The main reason behind this decision was that the state would effectively be killing innocent hostages in order to avoid a terrorist attack. The Court also ruled that the
Minister of Defense
A defence minister or minister of defence is a cabinet official position in charge of a ministry of defense, which regulates the armed forces in sovereign states. The role of a defence minister varies considerably from country to country; in som ...
is constitutionally not entitled to act in terrorism matters, as this is the duty of the state and federal police forces.
President of Germany Horst Köhler urged judicial review of the constitutionality of the Luftsicherheitsgesetz after he signed it into law in 2005.
India
India published its new anti-hijacking policy in August 2005. The policy came into force after approval from the
Cabinet Committee on Security
The Cabinet Committee on Security (CCS) of the Government of India discusses, debates and is the final decision-making body on senior appointments in the national security apparatus, defence policy and expenditure, and generally all matters of Ind ...
(CCS). The main points of the policy are:
* Any attempt to hijack will be considered an act of aggression against the country and will prompt a response fit for an aggressor.
* Hijackers, if captured alive, will be put on trial, convicted, and sentenced to death.
* Hijackers will be engaged in negotiations only to bring the incident to an end, to comfort passengers and to prevent loss of lives.
* The hijacked plane will be shot down if it is deemed to become a missile heading for strategic targets.
* The hijacked plane will be escorted by armed fighter aircraft and will be forced to land.
* A hijacked grounded plane will not be allowed to take off under any circumstance.
United States
Prior to the
September 11 attacks, countermeasures were focused on "traditional" hijackings. As such, there were no specific rules for handling suicide hijackings, where aircraft would be used as a weapon.
Moreover, military response at the time consisted of multiple uncoordinated units, each with its own set of rules of engagement with no unified command structure.
Soon after the attacks, however, new rules of engagement were introduced, authorizing the
North American Aerospace Defense Command (NORAD)the
Air Force command tasked with protecting U.S. airspaceto shoot down hijacked commercial airliners if the plane is deemed a threat to strategic targets. In 2003, the military stated that fighter pilots
exercise
Exercise is a body activity that enhances or maintains physical fitness and overall health and wellness.
It is performed for various reasons, to aid growth and improve strength, develop muscles and the cardiovascular system, hone athletic ...
this scenario several times a week.
Other countries
Poland and Russia are among other countries that have had laws or directives for shooting down hijacked planes. However, in September 2008 the Polish Constitutional Court ruled that the Polish rules were unconstitutional, and voided them.
International law
Tokyo Convention
The Convention on Offences and Certain Other Acts Committed on Board Aircraft, known as the Tokyo Convention, is an
international treaty which entered force on December 4, 1969. , it has been ratified by 186 parties. Article 11 of the
Tokyo Convention states the following:
The signatories agree that if there is unlawful takeover of an aircraft, or a threat of it on their territory, then they will take all necessary measures to regain or keep control over an aircraft. The captain can also disembark a suspected person on the territory of any country, where the aircraft lands, and that country must agree to it, as stated in Articles 8 and 12 of the convention.
Hague Convention
The
Convention for the Suppression of Unlawful Seizure of Aircraft
The Hague Hijacking Convention (formally the Convention for the Suppression of Unlawful Seizure of Aircraft) is a multilateral treaty by which states agree to prohibit and punish aircraft hijacking. The convention does not apply to customs, law ...
(known as the Hague Convention) went into effect on October 14, 1971. , the convention has 185 signatories.
Montreal Convention
The Montreal Convention is a
multilateral treaty adopted by a diplomatic meeting of
ICAO
The International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO, ) is a specialized agency of the United Nations that coordinates the principles and techniques of international air navigation, and fosters the planning and development of international a ...
member states in 1999. It amended important provisions of the
Warsaw Convention's regime concerning compensation for the victims of air disasters.
In popular culture
*The 1997 Hollywood film ''
Air Force One
Air Force One is the official air traffic control designated call sign for a United States Air Force aircraft carrying the president of the United States. In common parlance, the term is used to denote U.S. Air Force aircraft modified and used ...
'' is based on the fictional hijacking of
Air Force One
Air Force One is the official air traffic control designated call sign for a United States Air Force aircraft carrying the president of the United States. In common parlance, the term is used to denote U.S. Air Force aircraft modified and used ...
.
* Hijacking is a central theme in the ''
Turbulence'' movie trilogy.
*In ''
Mission: Impossible 2'', one of the film's antagonists hijacks a plane at the start of the movie.
*The 2006 film ''
United 93'' is based on the real events onboard
United Airlines Flight 93 one of the four airlines hijacked during the September 11 attacks.
*The 2012 film ''
The Dark Knight Rises'' features an opening sequence of hijacking and crashing an aircraft for the purpose of kidnapping a man and faking his death.
*The film ''
Con Air'' features a U.S. Marshals aircraft being hijacked by the maximum-security prisoners on board.
*''
The Taking of Flight 847: The Uli Derickson Story'' was a made-for-TV film based on the actual hijacking of
TWA Flight 847
Trans World Airlines Flight 847 was a flight from Cairo to San Diego with en route stops in Athens, Rome, Boston, and Los Angeles. On the morning of June 14, 1985, Flight 847 was hijacked shortly after take off from Athens. The hijackers demande ...
, as seen through the eyes of the chief flight attendant
Uli Derickson
Uli Derickson (née Patzelt, August 8, 1944 – February 18, 2005), was a German American flight attendant best known for her role in helping protect 152 passengers and crew members during the June 14, 1985, hijacking of TWA Flight 847 by militan ...
.
*''
Passenger 57
''Passenger 57'' is a 1992 American action thriller film directed by Kevin Hooks. The film stars Wesley Snipes and Bruce Payne, with Snipes portraying a security consultant who finds himself forced to foil a plot to free a captive terrorist during ...
'' depicts an airline security expert trapped on a passenger jet when terrorists seize control.
*''
Executive Decision'' depicts a Boeing 747 carrying 400 passengers being hijacked by Algerian terrorists, and U.S. marine and Army special forces use a reconnaissance aircraft to re-take the plane.
*''
Skyjacked'' is a 1972 film about a crazed Vietnam War veteran hijacking an airliner, demanding to be taken to the Soviet Union.
*The 1986 film ''
The Delta Force'' depicted a Special Forces squad tasked with retaking a plane hijacked by Lebanese terrorists, loosely based on the hijacking of
TWA Flight 847
Trans World Airlines Flight 847 was a flight from Cairo to San Diego with en route stops in Athens, Rome, Boston, and Los Angeles. On the morning of June 14, 1985, Flight 847 was hijacked shortly after take off from Athens. The hijackers demande ...
.
*The 2004 film ''
The Assassination of Richard Nixon
''The Assassination of Richard Nixon'' is a 2004 American drama film directed by Niels Mueller and starring Sean Penn, Don Cheadle, Jack Thompson and Naomi Watts. It is based on the story of would-be assassin Samuel Byck, who plotted to kill Richa ...
'', based on a true incident, depicts a disillusioned tire salesman who attempts to hijack a plane in 1974 and crash it into the
White House. His attempt failed and he was mortally wounded by an airport policeman. He killed himself before police stormed the plane.
*The 2006 film ''
Snakes On a Plane'' is a fictional story about aircraft piracy through the in-flight release of venomous snakes.
*In ''
Harold and Kumar 2
''Harold & Kumar Escape from Guantanamo Bay'' is a 2008 American Buddy film, buddy stoner film, stoner comedy film written and directed by Jon Hurwitz and Hayden Schlossberg. The sequel to ''Harold & Kumar Go to White Castle'' (2004), it is the se ...
'', two U.S.
Air Marshals subdue Harold and Kumar on board a plane after mistaking them for terrorists.
*The 2011 film ''
Payanam'' is a movie entirely based on the negotiations and rescue operations done by the Indian security forces in response to a flight hijacking incident.
*In the 2013 video game ''
Grand Theft Auto V
''Grand Theft Auto V'' is a 2013 action-adventure game developed by Rockstar North and published by Rockstar Games. It is the seventh main entry in the Grand Theft Auto, ''Grand Theft Auto'' series, following 2008's ''Grand Theft Auto IV'', and ...
'' the player is tasked with hijacking a
cargo plane carrying a large shipment of weapons by crashing a
crop duster into the cargo bay mid-flight and fighting to seize control of the aircraft. The cargo plane is later shot down by the
US Air Force, requiring the player to bail out.
*The 2014 film ''
Non-Stop'' depicts an aircraft hijacking.
*The Indian film ''
Neerja'' is based on the hijacking of
Pan Am Flight 73
Pan Am Flight 73 was a Pan American World Airways flight from Bombay, India, to New York, United States with scheduled stops in Karachi, Pakistan and Frankfurt, West Germany.
On September 5, 1986, the Boeing 747-121 serving the flight was hijack ...
in Karachi.
*In 2016, German television broadcast the film ''"Terror – Ihr Urteil"'' ("Terror – Your Judgement"), in which a
Bundeswehr military pilot shoots down a hijacked passenger plane with 164 people on board that was heading towards a stadium filled with 70,000 people. Following the broadcast, a public vote was called for in Germany, Austria and Switzerland, and 86.9% of viewers voted that the pilot was not guilty of murder.
Terror - Ihr Urteil - ARD
(German) , retrieved 20 June 2017
*The 2019 film ''7500'' depicts the struggle of a pilot to land an aircraft and maintain control of its cockpit during a hijacking.
See also
* Air pirate
* Airport security
* Canadian Air Transport Security Authority
The Canadian Air Transport Security Authority (CATSA; french: Administration canadienne de la sûreté du transport aérien) is the Canadian Crown Corporation responsible for security screening of people and baggage and the administration of ide ...
* Dymshits–Kuznetsov hijacking affair
* El Al
* Federal Air Marshal Service
The Federal Air Marshal Service (FAMS) is a United States federal law enforcement agency under the supervision of the Transportation Security Administration (TSA) of the United States Department of Homeland Security (DHS).
Because of the natur ...
* Federal Bureau of Investigation
The Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) is the domestic intelligence and security service of the United States and its principal federal law enforcement agency. Operating under the jurisdiction of the United States Department of Justice, t ...
* Federal crime in the United States
* List of aircraft hijackings
The following is a list of notable aircraft hijackings.
List of notable aircraft hijackings
1910s
* March–July 1919: Fleeing from the Hungarian Soviet Republic, Franz Nopcsa von Felső-Szilvás seized a plane at gunpoint in Budapest to fly to ...
* List of Cuba–United States aircraft hijackings
Aircraft hijacking incidents between the United States and Cuba were at their height between 1968 and 1972. These incidents have variously been attributed to terrorism, extortion, flight for political asylum, mental illness, and transportation be ...
* Palestinian political violence
* Terrorism
* Transportation Security Administration (TSA)
* United States Department of Homeland Security (DHS)
References
External links
"The First Hijacking Myth" at Fortnight Journal
"America's first highjacking" at A Blast From the Past
{{DEFAULTSORT:Hijacking
Aviation risks
Aviation security
Terrorism tactics