The ( grc-gre, ἀγωγή in

Attic Greek Attic Greek is the Greek language, Greek dialect of the regions of ancient Greece, ancient region of Attica, including the ''polis'' of classical Athens, Athens. Often called classical Greek, it was the prestige (sociolinguistics), prestige diale ...

, or , in

Doric Greek Doric or Dorian ( grc, Δωρισμός, Dōrismós), also known as West Greek, was a group of Ancient Greek dialects; its varieties are divided into the Doric proper and Northwest Doric subgroups. Doric was spoken in a vast area, that included ...

) was the rigorous education and training program mandated for all male Spartan citizens, with the exception of the firstborn son in the ruling houses,

Eurypontid For most of its history, the ancient Greek city-state of Sparta in the Peloponnese was ruled by kings. Sparta was unusual among the Greek city-states in that it maintained its kingship past the Archaic age. It was even more unusual in that it had ...

and

Agiad The Agiad dynasty was one of the two royal families of Sparta, a powerful city-state of Ancient Greece. The Agiads were seniors to the other royal house, the Eurypontids, with whom they had an enduring rivalry. Their hypothetical founder was Agis I ...

. The word had various meanings in

Ancient Greek Ancient Greek includes the forms of the Greek language used in ancient Greece and the ancient world from around 1500 BC to 300 BC. It is often roughly divided into the following periods: Mycenaean Greek (), Dark Ages (), the Archaic peri ...

, and comes from the verb (to lead).. There is no evidence that it was used to refer to the Spartan education system until the 3rd century BC, but it was often used before then to mean training, guidance, or discipline. The education featured in the involved cultivating loyalty to Sparta through military training (e.g., pain tolerance), hunting, dancing, singing, and social (communicating) preparation. The was divided into three age groups, roughly corresponding to young children, adolescents, and young adults. Spartan girls did not participate in the , although they may have received a similar state-sponsored education. Sources are unclear about the exact origins of the . According to

Xenophon Xenophon of Athens (; grc, wikt:Ξενοφῶν, Ξενοφῶν ; – probably 355 or 354 BC) was a Greek military leader, philosopher, and historian, born in Athens. At the age of 30, Xenophon was elected commander of one of the biggest Anci ...

, it was introduced by the semi-mythical Spartan law-giver

Lycurgus Lycurgus or Lykourgos () may refer to: People * Lycurgus (king of Sparta) (third century BC) * Lycurgus (lawgiver) (eighth century BC), creator of constitution of Sparta * Lycurgus of Athens (fourth century BC), one of the 'ten notable orators' ...

, and modern scholars have dated its inception to the 7th or 6th century BC Regardless, the structure and content of the changed over time as the practice fell in and out of favour throughout the

Hellenistic period In Classical antiquity, the Hellenistic period covers the time in Mediterranean history after Classical Greece, between the death of Alexander the Great in 323 BC and the emergence of the Roman Empire, as signified by the Battle of Actium in 3 ...

The Classical Agōgē

Structure

The was divided into three age categories: the (about ages 7–14), (ages 15–19), and the (ages 20–29). The boys were further subdivided into groups called (singular '','' meaning "pack"), with whom they would sleep, and were led by an older boy ('')'' who

Plutarch Plutarch (; grc-gre, Πλούταρχος, ''Ploútarchos''; ; – after AD 119) was a Greek Middle Platonist philosopher, historian, biographer, essayist, and priest at the Temple of Apollo in Delphi. He is known primarily for his ''P ...

claims was chosen by the boys themselves. They answered to the or "boy-herder," an upper class official who was tasked with overseeing the entire Spartan education system.Hodkinson, Stephen (2003). ''Social Order and the Conflict of Values in Classical Sparta.'' In ''Sparta'', ed. Michael Whitby. Taylor & Francis. pp.104-130.

The were taught the basics of reading and writing, but even the early stages of education focused on the development of skills that would encourage military prowess.Richer, Nicolas (2017). ''Spartan Education in the Classical Period.'' In ''A Companion to Sparta,'' eds. Anton Powell. John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. pp. 525-542 Boys would compete in athletic events such as running and wrestling, as well as choral dance performances.Christesen, Paul (2017). ''Sparta and Athletics''. In ''A Companion to Sparta'', ed. Anton Powell. John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. pp.534-564 Notably, were expected to steal food for themselves and for their '','' and were probably underfed as a means of encouraging this. Stealing did not go unpunished, however, as Xenophon reports that those who were caught would be beaten, a lesson which he claims taught the boys stealth and resourcefulness. There were other hardships too: the boys were made to participate in the in bare feet, supposedly to toughen their feet and improve agility, and beginning at the age of 12, boys would be given only one item of clothing, a cloak, per year. Plutarch reports that the boys slept together with the other members of their '','' constructing beds out of reeds pulled by hand from the

Eurotas River The Eurotas ( grc, Εὐρώτας) or Evrotas (modern Greek: ) is the main river of Laconia and one of the major rivers of the Peloponnese, in Greece. The river's springs are located just northwest of the border between Laconia and Arcadia, at ...

. Additionally, were educated in Laconism, the art of speaking in brief, witty phrases. According to French historian Jean Ducat,

Aristotle Aristotle (; grc-gre, Ἀριστοτέλης ''Aristotélēs'', ; 384–322 BC) was a Greek philosopher and polymath during the Classical period in Ancient Greece. Taught by Plato, he was the founder of the Peripatetic school of phil ...

believed that it was important that a Spartan learn how to poke fun at his peers, and that he be able to accept the teasing himself. At around age 12, a boy would often enter into an institutionalized relationship with a young adult male Spartan, which continued as he became a .

described this form of

Spartan pederasty Pederasty in ancient Greece was a socially acknowledged romantic relationship between an older male (the ''erastes'') and a younger male (the ''eromenos'') usually in his teens. It was characteristic of the Archaic and Classical periods. The in ...

(erotic relationship) as one where older warriors (as the ''erastes'') would engage promising youths (the ''

eromenos In ancient Greece, an ''eromenos'' was the younger and passive (or 'receptive') partner in a male homosexual relationship. The partner of an ''eromenos'' was the ''erastes'', the older and active partner. The ''eromenos'' was often depicted as a ...

'') in a long-lasting relationship with an instructive motive. Xenophon, on the other hand, claims that the laws of

strictly prohibited sexual relationships with the boys, although he acknowledges that this is unusual compared to other Greek city-states.

Ducat considers the stage of as a transitional phase between a child and an adult, where Spartan boys were encouraged to integrate themselves into adult society. At this point, loyalty shifted from the to the '' syssition,'' a common mess where adult Spartans of all ages were expected to eat together and socialize. Scholars have suggested that one role of the was to act as a "sponsor" through which the could gain entry to the same . Physical training and athletic competitions continued with an increased intensity.

At the age of 20, a young Spartan graduated from the ranks of the into the and was known as an ''.'' If he had demonstrated sufficient leadership qualities throughout his training, he might be selected to lead an ''.'' The term means: "those who have reached physical adulthood". It was at this age when Spartan men became eligible for military service and could vote in the assembly, although they were not yet considered full adult citizens and were still under the authority of the . Those who had impressed their elders the most during their training could be selected for the ''

Crypteia The Crypteia, also referred to as Krypteia or Krupteia (Greek: κρυπτεία ''krupteía'' from κρυπτός ''kruptós'', "hidden, secret"), was an ancient Spartan state institution involving young Spartan men. It was an exclusive element of ...

'', a type of 'Secret Police' tasked with maintaining control over the

Helot The helots (; el, εἵλωτες, ''heílotes'') were a subjugated population that constituted a majority of the population of Laconia and Messenia – the territories ruled by Sparta. There has been controversy since antiquity as to their e ...

population through violence. While scholars such as Pierre Vidal-Naquet have suggested that the Crypteia functioned as an initiatory ritual in the transition into adulthood, others, such as David Dodd, believe it was used primarily as a tool of terror. Plutarch and Plato also differ in their accounts about the Crypteia, with Plutarch mentioning brutal killings done by the Crypteia in

Life of Lycurgus Plutarch's ''Lives of the Noble Greeks and Romans'', commonly called ''Parallel Lives'' or ''Plutarch's Lives'', is a series of 48 biographies of famous men, arranged in pairs to illuminate their common moral virtues or failings, probably writt ...

and Plato not mentioning the killings at all in

Laws Law is a set of rules that are created and are law enforcement, enforceable by social or governmental institutions to regulate behavior,Robertson, ''Crimes against humanity'', 90. with its precise definition a matter of longstanding debate. ...

Additionally, 300 were chosen to join the , a highly-esteemed infantry cohort (despite the name implying cavalry). Xenophon describes the selection process as a public event where each of the three (commanders) chooses 100 men, supposedly to instill a rivalry between each group, seeing as each man would be loyal to the who chose him and resentful of the other two. He claims that this encouraged the groups to report instances of their rivals' wrongdoing, effectively keeping the entire cohort in check. A Spartan man was considered to have graduated from the ' at age 30, at which time he was expected to have been accepted into a and was permitted to have a family. He would also receive a , an allotment of land farmed by

helots The helots (; el, εἵλωτες, ''heílotes'') were a subjugated population that constituted a majority of the population of Laconia and Messenia – the territories ruled by Sparta. There has been controversy since antiquity as to their ex ...

Purpose

According to Plutarch, the main purpose of the ' was for Spartan boys to undergo intense physical trials in order to prepare their bodies for the harshness of war. The competitive nature of athletic events encouraged hard work and merit. However, it is likely that the ' had a second purpose: to instil in young children a collective Spartan identity. The ' kept Spartan boys away from their families for much of their childhood, which Stephen Hodkinson believes taught them to favour the needs of the entire populace over that of an individual. Since a Spartan man's formative years were spent entirely in a perpetual competition of merit (both physical and social) they were encouraged to conform to the Spartan laws and social norms. Completion of the ' also served to define what it meant to be a Spartan citizen: one who had proven his mastery of both physical strength and social conventions. There may have been an initiatory component to the ', especially in its early history. Training overlapped with ritual activity at the Sanctuary of Artemis Orthia, where were made to steal from the altar under threat of being beaten if they were caught, possibly as part of an initiation rite in the transition to a . As well, the ''

Gymnopaedia The Gymnopaedia was an annual festival celebrated exclusively in ancient Sparta, helped to define Spartan identity. It featured generations of naked Spartan men participating in war dancing and choral singing, with a large emphasis placed on age a ...

'' festival featured choral and athletic competitions between groups of naked youths, and boys may have been expected to participate as part of the '.

After the Classical period

The popularity of the was diminished by the first half of the 3rd century BCE, possibly as a result of the declining Spartan population, but was successfully reinvigorated by

Cleomenes III Cleomenes III ( grc, Κλεομένης) was one of the two kings of Sparta from 235 to 222 BC. He was a member of the Agiad dynasty and succeeded his father, Leonidas II. He is known for his attempts to reform the Spartan state. From 229 to ...

in 226 BCE. It was abolished less than forty years later by

Philopoemen Philopoemen ( el, Φιλοποίμην ''Philopoímēn''; 253 BC, Megalopolis – 183 BC, Messene) was a skilled Greek general and statesman, who was Achaean strategos on eight occasions. From the time he was appointed as strategos in 209 BC ...

when Sparta was forced into the

Achaean League The Achaean League (Greek: , ''Koinon ton Akhaion'' "League of Achaeans") was a Hellenistic-era confederation of Greek city states on the northern and central Peloponnese. The league was named after the region of Achaea in the northwestern Pel ...

in 188/9 BCE, but was restored after Sparta came into Roman possession in 146 BCE.Kennell, Nigel (2017). ''Spartan Cultural Memory in the Roman Period.'' In ''A Companion to Sparta'', ed. Anton Powell. John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. pp.643-662 Roman Sparta was characterized by a desire to emulate the traditional institutions of the archaic past, and this was mainly expressed through the '. Ironically, the ' in this period was almost certainly different from that of the Classical period. For example, there may have been a change in the way boys were divided by age; Plutarch (writing in the 2nd century CE) mentions only two groups: the younger and the older . As well, the term appears to replace the Classical as the name for the groups of boys. However, the cult of Artemis Orthia continued to play a role.

Cicero Marcus Tullius Cicero ( ; ; 3 January 106 BC – 7 December 43 BC) was a Roman statesman, lawyer, scholar, philosopher, and academic skeptic, who tried to uphold optimate principles during the political crises that led to the estab ...

describes an initiation ritual where naked boys were brutally whipped at the altar of that goddess, and numerous mention contests of choral singing and dancing which may celebrate Artemis and the hunt. It is likely around this time that a game called was developed (although it may have existed in the Classical period), which took place on a small island, and featured a violent, physical contest with the goal of forcing the opposing side into the water. This contest was likely ritual in nature, as two sacrifices were performed before the event could begin. The characterization of the Roman-era ' as especially brutal reinforced the opinion of the Roman public that Spartans were traditionally a harsh, warlike people.

''Paidonomos''

The was the magistrate in charge of overseeing the as a whole. According to Xenophon, the position is as old as the itself, having been created by Lycurgus at the same time.Xen. Constitution of the Lacedaimonians. 2.2 As the ultimate position of authority within the Spartan education system, the was responsible for doling out punishment, but was probably not directly responsible for inflicting it; this would have been delegated to the , a squadron of armed with whips. Plutarch notes that the would observe an 's punishment of younger boys in his '','' in order to assess whether or not it was acceptable. Xenophon stresses the difference between the , a free, high-ranking magistrate, and the (tutors) found in other poleis, who were slaves.

Reception

In Antiquity

The exact nature of an education in the ' was not hidden from the rest of the Greek world. This is evidenced by the number of non-Spartan sources who wrote about the ':

Thucydides Thucydides (; grc, , }; BC) was an Athenian historian and general. His ''History of the Peloponnesian War'' recounts the fifth-century BC war between Sparta and Athens until the year 411 BC. Thucydides has been dubbed the father of "scientifi ...

indicates that the ' was well-known throughout Greece in the Classical period, and both

Plato Plato ( ; grc-gre, Πλάτων ; 428/427 or 424/423 – 348/347 BC) was a Greek philosopher born in Athens during the Classical period in Ancient Greece. He founded the Platonist school of thought and the Academy, the first institution ...

and Aristotle praised it as part of an ideal city-state. Further evidence for this comes from the word '','' which is used to describe foreigners who were educated in the ''.'' The historian Xenophon is a notable example of this, as his sons reportedly took part in the ' despite being Athenian. It is likely that such were sponsored and hosted by a Spartan family; Xenophon himself was a friend of King

Agesilaus II Agesilaus II (; grc-gre, Ἀγησίλαος ; c. 442 – 358 BC) was king of Sparta from c. 399 to 358 BC. Generally considered the most important king in the history of Sparta, Agesilaus was the main actor during the period of Spartan hegemony ...

. This practice likely continued into the Hellenistic Period. Supposedly,

Pyrrhus of Epirus Pyrrhus (; grc-gre, Πύρρος ; 319/318–272 BC) was a Greek king and statesman of the Hellenistic period.Plutarch. ''Parallel Lives'',Pyrrhus... He was king of the Greek tribe of Molossians, of the royal Aeacid house, and later he becam ...

hid his intention to overthrow Sparta by claiming that part of his reason for marching on the Peloponnese was to have his sons trained in the ''.'' Plutarch, writing after Xenophon and during the Roman era when the Agoge was restored, was critical of this education. He wrote that the reading and writing were studied only for practical reasons and that every other form of education was banned in the city-state. Plutarch also emphasized the brutality and indoctrination of the Spartan education system.

19th – 21st centuries

In the early 20th century, comparisons were drawn between the Spartan education system and the Royal Prussian Cadets in

Germany Germany,, officially the Federal Republic of Germany, is a country in Central Europe. It is the second most populous country in Europe after Russia, and the most populous member state of the European Union. Germany is situated betwe ...

, praising the harsh education as the driving force behind the cadets' military prowess. In 1900, Paul von Szczepanski published his novel (''Spartan Youths'') about his education at one such cadet school during the late 19th century. Aside from the name, the book features other references to Spartan training, which Helen Roche believes are indicators that boys at these schools were taught to associate themselves with young Spartans. In

Weimar Germany The Weimar Republic (german: link=no, Weimarer Republik ), officially named the German Reich, was the government of Germany from 1918 to 1933, during which it was a constitutional federal republic for the first time in history; hence it is als ...

, after the loss of the

First World War World War I (28 July 1914 11 November 1918), often abbreviated as WWI, was one of the deadliest global conflicts in history. Belligerents included much of Europe, the Russian Empire, the United States, and the Ottoman Empire, with fightin ...

, many scholars drew connections with the sacrifice of the Spartan king

Leonidas Leonidas I (; grc-gre, Λεωνίδας; died 19 September 480 BC) was a List of kings of Sparta#Heraclids, king of the Greek city-state of Sparta, and the 17th of the List of kings of Sparta#Agiad dynasty, Agiad line, a dynasty which claimed d ...

Thermopylae Thermopylae (; Ancient Greek and Katharevousa: (''Thermopylai'') , Demotic Greek (Greek): , (''Thermopyles'') ; "hot gates") is a place in Greece where a narrow coastal passage existed in antiquity. It derives its name from its hot sulphur ...

in order to justify the deaths of those who died in the war. The mental strength of Leonidas and the 300 was attributed in part to their upbringing in the ''.''Rebenich, Stefan (2017). ''Reception of Sparta in Germany and German-Speaking Europe''. In ''A Companion to Sparta,'' ed. Anton Powell. John Wiley and Sons, Ltd. pp. 685-703 In the 1930s, the

Nazi Nazism ( ; german: Nazismus), the common name in English for National Socialism (german: Nationalsozialismus, ), is the far-right totalitarian political ideology and practices associated with Adolf Hitler and the Nazi Party (NSDAP) in ...

-aligned professor Helmut Berve praised the Spartan style of education in particular for its ability to weed out those considered "unfit" for society, and to create a community of unified warriors. He argued that Nazi leaders should use Sparta as an example of their ideal society, ideas which

Hitler Adolf Hitler (; 20 April 188930 April 1945) was an Austrian-born German politician who was dictator of Germany from 1933 until his death in 1945. He rose to power as the leader of the Nazi Party, becoming the chancellor in 1933 and then ...

himself supposedly agreed with. At the ''Adolf Hitler Schule'' in Weimar, Germany, schoolchildren were taught that Sparta maintained its power by producing tough, ''-''educated warriors. In the 21st century, the is known primarily in the context of intense physical trials.

Spartan Race Spartan Race is a series of obstacle races of varying distance and difficulty ranging from 3 miles to marathon distances. These races are held in the United States and have been franchised to 30 countries, including Canada, South Korea, Austra ...

Inc., an American company, hosts a variety of endurance competitions across the world, the most challenging of which is called "". It stands as a physical trial rather than as state sponsored education. In science fiction,

Red Rising ''Red Rising'' is a 2014 dystopian science fiction novel by American author Pierce Brown, and the first book and eponym of a series. The novel, set in the future on Mars, follows lowborn miner Darrow as he infiltrates the ranks of the elite Gol ...

contains a training program based on Greek institution like the agōgē in the form of a state sponsored military education system which utilizes Greek names and symbols; the program emphasizes Spartan discipline against Athenian Democracy. In the American action film 300 (2007), Leonidas is depicted attending the Agoge as a child and fulfilling various physical and mental trials from fighting other children to being whipped as a form of discipline. Historian Bret Devereaux has compared the Spartan to the training of child soldiers in modern societies as part of his blog "A Collection of Unmitigated Pedantry."

References

Bibliography

Secondary sources

* Cartledge, Paul (2001). ''Spartan reflections''. London: Duckworth. .

OCLC OCLC, Inc., doing business as OCLC, See also: is an American nonprofit cooperative organization "that provides shared technology services, original research, and community programs for its membership and the library community at large". It was ...

45648270 * Christesen, Paul (2017). ''Sparta and Athletics''. In ''A Companion to Sparta'', ed. Anton Powell. John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. pp.534-564
Demandt, Alexander (2002). "Klassik als Klischee: Hitler und die Antike".
''Historische Zeitschrift''. 274 (2): 281–313.

ISSN An International Standard Serial Number (ISSN) is an eight-digit serial number used to uniquely identify a serial publication, such as a magazine. The ISSN is especially helpful in distinguishing between serials with the same title. ISSNs ...

0018-2613. * Devereaux, Bret (2019-08-16)''.
Collections: This. Isn't. Sparta. Part I: Spartan School"
'' A Collection of Unmitigated Pedantry. Retrieved 2021-03-19. * Dodd, David (2013). ''Adolescent Initiation in Myth and Tragedy: Rethinking the Black Hunter''. In ''Initiation in Ancient Greek Rituals and Narratives: New Critical Perspectives''. Routledge. pp. 71–84. . * Ducat, Jean (2006). ''Spartan education : youth and society in the classical period''. Emma Stafford, Pamela-Jane Shaw, Anton Powell. Swansea: Classical Press of Wales. .

76892341 * Figueira, Thomas (2017). ''Helotage and the Spartan Economy''. In ''A Companion to Sparta'', ed. Anton Powell. John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. pp. 565-595. * Hodkinson, Stephen (1996). "Agoge". In Hornblower, Simon (ed.). ''

Oxford Classical Dictionary The ''Oxford Classical Dictionary'' (''OCD'') is generally considered "the best one-volume dictionary on antiquity," an encyclopædic work in English consisting of articles relating to classical antiquity and its civilizations. It was first pub ...

''.

Oxford University Press Oxford University Press (OUP) is the university press of the University of Oxford. It is the largest university press in the world, and its printing history dates back to the 1480s. Having been officially granted the legal right to print books ...

. * Hodkinson, Stephen (2003). ''Social Order and the Conflict of Values in Classical Sparta.'' In ''Sparta'', ed. Michael Whitby. Taylor & Francis. pp.104-130. * Kennell, Nigel (2017). ''Spartan Cultural Memory in the Roman Period.'' In ''A Companion to Sparta'', ed. Anton Powell. John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. pp.643-662. * Kennell, Nigel M. (1995). ''The gymnasium of virtue : education & culture in ancient Sparta''. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press. .

42854632. * Powell, Anton (2017). ''Sparta: Reconstructing History from Secrecy, Lies and Myth.'' In ''A Companion to Sparta,'' ed. Anton Powell. pp. 1-28. * Rebenich, Stefan (2017). ''Reception of Sparta in Germany and German-Speaking Europe''. In ''A Companion to Sparta,'' ed. Anton Powell. John Wiley and Sons, Ltd. pp. 685-703 * Richer, Nicolas (2017). ''Spartan Education in the Classical Period.'' In ''A Companion to Sparta,'' eds. Anton Powell. John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. pp. 525-542. * Roche, Helen (2013). ''Sparta's German children the ideal of ancient Sparta in the Royal Prussian Cadet-Corps, 1818-1920, and in the Nationalist-Socialist elite schools (the Napolas), 1933-1945''. Swansea: Classical Press of Wales. pp. 32–35. .

1019630468. * Scanlon, Thomas Francis (2002). ''Eros & Greek athletics''. New York: Oxford University Press. .

316719681. * Stewart, Daniel (2017). ''From Leuktra to Nabis, 371-192.'' In ''A Companion to Sparta'', ed. Anton Powell. John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. pp.374-402. * Tazelaar, C.M. (1967). "ΠAIΔEΣ KAI EΦHBOI". ''Mnemosyne''. 20 (2): 127–153. doi:10.1163/156852567X01473.

0026-7074. * Vidal-Naquet, Pierre (1981). ''Le chasseur noir : formes de penseé et formes de société dans le monde grec''. Paris: F. Maspero. .

7658419.

Primary sources

* Aristotle
Politics
* Berve, Helmut (1937). ''Sparta''. Meyers Kleine Handbücher,7. Leipzig: Bibliographisches Institut AG. * Cicero
Tusculan Disputations
* Plutarch. Lives
Life of Lycurgus
* Plutarch. Lives
Life of Pyrrhus
* Szczepanski, Paul Von (2018). ''Spartanerjünglinge: Eine Kadettengeschichte in Briefen''. Forgotten Books. . * Xenophon
Constitution of the Lacedaimonians
{{Italic title Education in ancient Greece Spartan military training