Affricates

An affricate is a consonant that begins as a stop and releases as a fricative, generally with the same place of articulation (most often coronal). It is often difficult to decide if a stop and fricative form a single phoneme or a consonant pair. English has two affricate phonemes, and , often spelled ''ch'' and ''j'', respectively.

Examples

The English sounds spelled "ch" and "j" ( broadly transcribed as and in the IPA), German and Italian ''z'' and Italian ''z'' are typical affricates, and sounds like these are fairly common in the world's languages, as are other affricates with similar sounds, such as those in Polish and Chinese. However, voiced affricates other than are relatively uncommon. For several places of articulation they are not attested at all.

Much less common are labiodental affricates, such as in German and Izi, or velar affricates, such as in Tswana (written ''kg'') or in High Alemannic Swiss German dialects. Worldwide, relatively few languages have affricates in these positions even though the corresponding stop consonants, and , are common or virtually universal. Also less common are alveolar affricates where the fricative release is lateral, such as the sound found in Nahuatl and Navajo. Some other Athabaskan languages, such as Dene Suline, have unaspirated, aspirated, and ejective series of affricates whose release may be dental, alveolar, postalveolar, or lateral: , , , , , , , , , , , and .

Notation

Affricates are transcribed in the International Phonetic Alphabet by a combination of two letters, one for the stop element and the other for the fricative element. In order to show that these are parts of a single consonant, a tie bar is generally used. The tie bar appears most commonly above the two letters, but may be placed under them if it fits better there, or simply because it is more legible. Thus:
:
or
:.

A less common notation indicates the release of the affricate with a superscript:
:
This is derived from the IPA convention of indicating other releases with a superscript. However, this convention is more typically used for a fricated release that is too brief to be considered a true affricate.

Though they are no longer standard IPA, ligatures are available in Unicode for eight common affricates
:.
Any of these notations can be used to distinguish an affricate from a sequence of a stop plus a fricative, which exists in some languages such as Polish. However, in languages where there is no such distinction, such as English, the tie bars are commonly dropped.

In other phonetic transcription systems, such as the Americanist system, affricates may be transcribed with single letters. The affricates , , , , , are transcribed respectively as or ; , , or (older) ; or ; , , or (older) ; ; and or . Within the IPA, and are sometimes transcribed with the symbols for the palatal stops, and .

Affricates vs. stop–fricative sequences

In some languages, affricates contrast phonemically with stop–fricative sequences:
*Polish affricate in ''czysta'' 'clean (f.)' versus stop–fricative in ''trzysta'' 'three hundred'.
*Klallam affricate in ''k'ʷə́nc'' 'look at me' versus stop–fricative in ''k'ʷə́nts'' 'he looks at it'.

The exact phonetic difference varies between languages. In stop–fricative sequences, the stop has a release burst before the fricative starts; but in affricates, the fricative element ''is'' the release. Phonologically, stop–fricative sequences may have a syllable boundary between the two segments, but not necessarily.

In English, and (''nuts'', ''nods'') are considered phonemically stop–fricative sequences. They often contain a morpheme boundary (for example, ''nuts'' = ''nut'' + ''s''). The English affricate phonemes and do not generally contain morpheme boundaries. Depending on dialect, English speakers may distinguish an affricate from a stop–fricative sequence in some contexts such as when the sequence occurs across syllable boundaries:

*''worst shin'' →
*''worse chin'' →

The in 'worst shin' debuccalizes to a glottal stop before in many dialects, making it phonetically distinct from .

One acoustic criterion for differentiating affricates and stop–fricative sequences is the rate of amplitude increase of the frication noise, which is known as the ''rise time''. Affricates have a short rise time to the peak frication amplitude; stop–fricative sequences have longer rise times (Howell & Rosen 1983, Johnson 2003, Mitani et al. 2006).

List of affricates

In the case of coronals, the symbols are normally used for the stop portion of the affricate regardless of place. For example, is commonly seen for .

The exemplar languages are ones that have been reported to have these sounds, but in several cases, they may need confirmation.

Sibilant affricates

The Northwest Caucasian languages Abkhaz and Ubykh both contrast sibilant affricates at four places of articulation: alveolar, postalveolar, alveolo-palatal and retroflex. They also distinguish voiceless, voiced, and ejective affricates at each of these.

When a language has only one type of affricate, it is usually a sibilant; this is the case in e.g. Arabic (), most dialects of Spanish (), and Thai ().

Non-sibilant affricates

Lateral affricates

Trilled affricates

Pirahã and Wari' have a dental stop with bilabial trilled release .

Heterorganic affricates

Although most affricates are homorganic, Navajo and Chiricahua Apache have a heterorganic alveolar-velar affricate (Hoijer & Opler 1938, Young & Morgan 1987, Ladefoged & Maddeison 1996, McDonough 2003, McDonough & Wood 2008, Iskarous, et al. 2012). Wari' and Pirahã have a voiceless dental bilabially trilled affricate ̪ʙ̥(see #Trilled affricates), Blackfoot has . Other heterorganic affricates are reported for Northern Sotho (Johnson 2003) and other Bantu languages such as Phuthi, which has alveolar–labiodental affricates and , and Sesotho, which has bilabial–palatoalveolar affricates and . Djeoromitxi (Pies 1992) has and .

Phonation, coarticulation and other variants

The coronal and dorsal places of articulation attested as ejectives as well: . Several Khoisan languages such as !Xóõ are reported to have voiced ejective affricates, but these are actually ''pre''-voiced: . Affricates are also commonly aspirated: , murmured: , and prenasalized: . Labialized, palatalized, velarized, and pharyngealized affricates are also common. Affricates may also have phonemic length, that is, affected by a chroneme, as in Italian and Karelian.

Phonological representation

In phonology, affricates tend to behave similarly to stops, taking part in phonological patterns that fricatives do not. analyzes phonetic affricates as phonological stops. A sibilant or lateral (and presumably trilled) stop can be realized phonetically only as an affricate and so might be analyzed phonemically as a sibilant or lateral stop. In that analysis, affricates other than sibilants and laterals are a phonetic mechanism for distinguishing stops at similar places of articulation (like more than one labial, coronal, or dorsal place). For example, Chipewyan has laminal dental vs. apical alveolar ; other languages may contrast velar with palatal and uvular .
Affricates may also be a strategy to increase the phonetic contrast between aspirated or ejective and tenuis consonants.

According to , no language contrasts a non-sibilant, non-lateral affricate with a stop at the same place of articulation and with the same phonation and airstream mechanism, such as and or and .

In feature-based phonology, affricates are distinguished from stops by the feature delayed release

Affrication

Affrication (sometimes called ''affricatization'') is a sound change by which a consonant, usually a stop or fricative, changes into an affricate. Examples include:
* Proto-Germanic > Modern English , as in ''chin'' (cf. German ''Kinn'': Anglo-Frisian palatalization)
* Proto-Semitic > Standard Arabic in all positions, as in ''جمل'' (camel) (cf. Aramaic: גמלא (gamlā'), Amharic: ግመል (gəmäl), and Hebrew: גמל (gamal)).
* Early Modern English > (yod-coalescence)
* > in the High German consonant shift
* > before respectively in 16th-century Japanese
* > word-initially in Udmurt

Pre-affrication

In rare instances, a fricative–stop contour may occur. This is the case in dialects of Scottish Gaelic that have velar frication where other dialects have pre-aspiration. For example, in the Harris dialect there is 'seven' and 'eight' (or , ).Laver (1994) ''Principles of Phonetics'', p. 374.

See also

* Apical consonant
* Hush consonant
* Laminal consonant
* Index of phonetics articles

References

Sources

*
*Hoijer, Harry; & Opler, Morris E. (1938). ''Chiricahua and Mescalero Apache texts''. The University of Chicago publications in anthropology; Linguistic series. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
*Howell Peter; & Rosen, Stuart. (1983). Production and perception of rise time in the voiceless affricate/fricative distinction. ''The Journal of the Acoustical Society of America'', ''73'' (3), 976–984.
*Iskarous, K; McDonough, J; & Whalen, D. (2012) A gestural account of the velar fricative in Navajo. ''Journal of Laboratory Phonology'' 195-210.
*Johnson, Keith. (2003). ''Acoustic & auditory phonetics'' (2nd ed.). Malden, MA: Blackwell Publishing.
*
*Ladefoged, P. (1995) ''A Course in Phonetics'' (5th ed] Wadsworth, Inc
*Ladefoged, P; & Maddieson, I. (1996) ''Sounds of the Worlds Languages''. Blackwell.
*Maddieson, Ian. (1984). ''Patterns of sounds''. Cambridge University Press.
*McDonough, J (2003) ''The Navajo Sound System''. Kluwer
*McDonough, Joyce; & Wood, Valerie. (2008). The stop contrasts of the Athabaskan languages. ''Journal of Phonetics'' 36, 427-449.
*Mitani, Shigeki; Kitama, Toshihiro; & Sato, Yu. (2006). Voiceless affricate/fricative distinction by frication duration and amplitude rise slope. ''The Journal of the Acoustical Society of America'', ''120'' (3), 1600–1607.
*
*Young, R & Morgan W. (1987) ''The Navajo Language''. University of New Mexico Press.

External links

Affricates in English

{{DEFAULTSORT:Affricate Consonant
Manner of articulation