The action of 31 July 1793 was an inconclusive engagement between a

British British may refer to: Peoples, culture, and language * British people, nationals or natives of the United Kingdom, British Overseas Territories, and Crown Dependencies. ** Britishness, the British identity and common culture * British English, ...

Royal Navy The Royal Navy (RN) is the United Kingdom's naval warfare force. Although warships were used by English and Scottish kings from the early medieval period, the first major maritime engagements were fought in the Hundred Years' War against F ...

frigate A frigate () is a type of warship. In different eras, the roles and capabilities of ships classified as frigates have varied somewhat. The name frigate in the 17th to early 18th centuries was given to any full-rigged ship built for speed and ...

and French frigate off the

New Jersey New Jersey is a state in the Mid-Atlantic and Northeastern regions of the United States. It is bordered on the north and east by the state of New York; on the east, southeast, and south by the Atlantic Ocean; on the west by the Delaware ...

coastline in the first year of the

French Revolutionary Wars The French Revolutionary Wars (french: Guerres de la Révolution française) were a series of sweeping military conflicts lasting from 1792 until 1802 and resulting from the French Revolution. They pitted French First Republic, France against Ki ...

. The British

captain Captain is a title, an appellative for the commanding officer of a military unit; the supreme leader of a navy ship, merchant ship, aeroplane, spacecraft, or other vessel; or the commander of a port, fire or police department, election precinct, e ...

, George Courtenay of HMS ''Boston'', had arrived off

New York City New York, often called New York City or NYC, is the List of United States cities by population, most populous city in the United States. With a 2020 population of 8,804,190 distributed over , New York City is also the L ...

on 28 May and deliberately disguised his ship as a French vessel, fooling a French officer into coming aboard and making him a

prisoner of war A prisoner of war (POW) is a person who is held captive by a belligerent power during or immediately after an armed conflict. The earliest recorded usage of the phrase "prisoner of war" dates back to 1610. Belligerents hold prisoners of wa ...

. Courtenay then sent a message into New York, where he knew a French frigate lay at anchor, challenging the French captain to battle within the next three days. The challenge was accepted and widely disseminated throughout the city, so that when Captain

Jean-Baptiste-François Bompart Jean-Baptiste-François Bompart (1757 in Lorient – 1842 in Bagnols) was a French privateer, navy officer and admiral. He was related to the noted Admiral Maxime de Bompart. He took part in the American War of Independence as a young officer. H ...

of ''Embuscade'' sailed out to meet Courtenay on the morning of 31 July, the shore was crowded with thousands of sightseers. The engagement between the ships was fiercely contested, but the smaller and more lightly armed ''Boston'' seemed to be taking the more serious damage when at 6:20 Captain Courtenay was thrown to the deck. What happened next has been subject to debate, with the second-in-command, Lieutenant John Edwards claiming that Courtenay had been killed and he was thrown overboard as was the custom at the time. However rumours subsequently circulated that Courtenay had only been knocked

unconscious Unconscious may refer to: Physiology * Unconsciousness, the lack of consciousness or responsiveness to people and other environmental stimuli Psychology * Unconscious mind, the mind operating well outside the attention of the conscious mind a ...

when Edwards gave the order to jettison him, a story that his family credited and was later taken up by the contemporary historian

Edward Pelham Brenton Captain Edward Pelham Brenton (20 July 1774 – 13 April 1839) was an officer of the British Royal Navy during the French Revolutionary and Napoleonic Wars who military career was relatively quiet, apart from involvement in the capture of ...

, although historian

William James William James (January 11, 1842 – August 26, 1910) was an American philosopher, historian, and psychologist, and the first educator to offer a psychology course in the United States. James is considered to be a leading thinker of the lat ...

subsequently defended Edwards' actions. With Courtenay gone, ''Boston'' continued to suffer severe damage until just after 07:00, when the remaining officers ordered all surviving sails set and the British ship attempted to escape. Although Bompart pursued, by 08:00 the strain had proved too much for his ship and he fell back. After a close encounter with French ships in the

Delaware River The Delaware River is a major river in the Mid-Atlantic (United States), Mid-Atlantic region of the United States. From the meeting of its branches in Hancock (village), New York, Hancock, New York, the river flows for along the borders of N ...

, ''Boston'' eventually escaped to St John's, Newfoundland while ''Embuscade'' refitted in New York.

Background

In February 1793 the newly formed

French Republic France (), officially the French Republic ( ), is a country primarily located in Western Europe. It also comprises of overseas regions and territories in the Americas and the Atlantic, Pacific and Indian Oceans. Its metropolitan area ...

declared war on

Great Britain Great Britain is an island in the North Atlantic Ocean off the northwest coast of continental Europe. With an area of , it is the largest of the British Isles, the largest European island and the ninth-largest island in the world. It is ...

, extending the

that had begun the year before on the continent. The

French Navy The French Navy (french: Marine nationale, lit=National Navy), informally , is the maritime arm of the French Armed Forces and one of the five military service branches of France. It is among the largest and most powerful naval forces in t ...

was in a state of upheaval due to the social consequences of the

French Revolution The French Revolution ( ) was a period of radical political and societal change in France that began with the Estates General of 1789 and ended with the formation of the French Consulate in November 1799. Many of its ideas are considere ...

, and as a result found itself at a disadvantage to the

, which had been preparing for war since June 1792.Woodman, p. 20 In response, the French sent several

squadrons to sea, including their newest ships and best sailors and officers in an attempt to disrupt British commerce in the early stages of the war. One such squadron was sent in April 1793 to the

United States The United States of America (U.S.A. or USA), commonly known as the United States (U.S. or US) or America, is a country primarily located in North America. It consists of 50 states, a federal district, five major unincorporated territorie ...

, carrying the French ambassador to the United States,

Edmond-Charles Genêt Edmond-Charles Genêt (January 8, 1763July 14, 1834), also known as Citizen Genêt, was the French envoy to the United States appointed by the Girondins during the French Revolution. His actions on arriving in the United States led to a major po ...

. After the ambassador disembarked, the squadron, under the command of Captain

, dispersed to raid British shipping along the coast, capturing or destroying more than 60 merchant vessels before retiring to American ports for repairs.Woodman, p. 28 The French threat on the American Seaboard was met by Royal Navy frigates operating out of

Halifax, Nova Scotia Halifax is the capital and largest municipality of the Canadian province of Nova Scotia, and the largest municipality in Atlantic Canada. As of the 2021 Census, the municipal population was 439,819, with 348,634 people in its urban area. The ...

, under orders to watch and

blockade A blockade is the act of actively preventing a country or region from receiving or sending out food, supplies, weapons, or communications, and sometimes people, by military force. A blockade differs from an embargo or sanction, which are le ...

French movements in American ports. One such ship was the 32-gun frigate HMS ''Boston'', a small and old vessel under the command of Captain George Courtenay. Courtenay was under orders to watch

, where one of the frigates was known to be at anchor.Mostert, p. xix On 28 June 1793, ''Boston'' arrived off New York, Courtenay deliberately disguising his ship to resemble a French vessel by having the

French-speaking French ( or ) is a Romance language of the Indo-European family. It descended from the Vulgar Latin of the Roman Empire, as did all Romance languages. French evolved from Gallo-Romance, the Latin spoken in Gaul, and more specifically in Nor ...

members of his crew talk loudly on the quarterdeck while an American

pilot boat A pilot boat is a type of boat used to transport maritime pilots between land and the inbound or outbound ships that they are piloting. Pilot boats were once sailing boats that had to be fast because the first pilot to reach the incoming ship ...

was within earshot. The French ship in New York was Bompart's ship ''Embuscade'', a large and powerful vessel that had been built less than three years before and carried a combined broadside weight of , more than that of ''Boston''. Sighting the strange ship off the harbour, Bompart sent a boat with his lieutenant, an American from

Boston Boston (), officially the City of Boston, is the state capital and most populous city of the Commonwealth of Massachusetts, as well as the cultural and financial center of the New England region of the United States. It is the 24th- mo ...

named Whitynow, and twelve men to investigate. Although he was suspicious of the strange vessel, Whitynow was finally convinced that the ship was a French vessel after conferring with the pilots, and came aboard only to discover his error when Courtenay seized him and his men as

prisoners of war A prisoner of war (POW) is a person who is held Captivity, captive by a belligerent power during or immediately after an armed conflict. The earliest recorded usage of the phrase "prisoner of war" dates back to 1610. Belligerents hold priso ...

.Woodman, p. 29 Courtenay suggested to his prisoner that he would be keen to meet Bompart in battle, and he agreed to send a message into New York via the pilot boat with a challenge for Bompart to bring ''Embuscade'' out of the neutral harbour and meet ''Boston'' off

Sandy Hook Sandy Hook is a barrier spit in Middletown Township, Monmouth County, New Jersey, United States. The barrier spit, approximately in length and varying from wide, is located at the north end of the Jersey Shore. It encloses the southern en ...

. The pilot was initially unable to locate the French captain, and so instead posted the challenge in a

coffeehouse A coffeehouse, coffee shop, or café is an establishment that primarily serves coffee of various types, notably espresso, latte, and cappuccino. Some coffeehouses may serve cold drinks, such as iced coffee and iced tea, as well as other non-ca ...

in the city, from where the news spread rapidly.Clowes, p. 478 Bompart came to learn of it, and spent the next two days preparing his warship; historian

has claimed that Bompart was joined by 100 armed American volunteers, which he calls "a flagrant violation of the law of nations". After a consultation among the French officers ''Embuscade'' sailed from New York on the night of 30 July, although Courtenay was almost forced to miss the rendezvous: on the afternoon of 30 July a large French battle squadron of the

ships of the line A ship of the line was a type of naval warship constructed during the Age of Sail from the 17th century to the mid-19th century. The ship of the line was designed for the naval tactic known as the line of battle, which depended on the two colum ...

''Éole'' and ''Patriote'', four frigates and six smaller vessels passed northwards along the

coast, heading for New York. In the face of such a powerful force ''Boston'' was temporarily forced to withdraw to open water, but the squadron did not deviate to investigate the frigate and had passed into New York harbour by nightfall, allowing Courtenay to return to his station.Woodman, p. 30

Battle

At 03:00 on 31 May, lookouts on ''Boston'' reported a large ship approaching from the northeast. Courtenay readied his ship for battle and at 03:30 the ship passed at a distance of and was shortly afterwards recognised as a frigate flying the

French tricolour The national flag of France (french: link=no, drapeau français) is a tricolour featuring three vertical bands coloured blue ( hoist side), white, and red. It is known to English speakers as the ''Tricolour'' (), although the flag of Ireland ...

. Unsure of the newcomer's identity, Courtenay raised the same flag and in response the strange ship raised a blue flag bearing a white cross, identifying itself as ''Embuscade'', come to meet his challenge. At 04:00 both ships turned eastwards, continuing for 45 minutes until ''Boston'' slowed and raised British colours. As the British ship slowed the French vessel overtook at distance and at 05:00 ''Boston'' tacked towards the French ship, ''Embuscade'' slowing so that Courtenay's frigate passed along the

starboard Port and starboard are nautical terms for watercraft and aircraft, referring respectively to the left and right sides of the vessel, when aboard and facing the bow (front). Vessels with bilateral symmetry have left and right halves which are ...

broadside. ''Boston'' fired first at 05:05, followed immediately by a volley from ''Embuscade''. Both ships then tacked again, by this time approximately southeast of

Navesink, New Jersey Navesink (, ) is an unincorporated community and census-designated place (CDP) located on the northernmost stretch of the Jersey Shore in Middletown Township in Monmouth County, in the U.S. state of New Jersey. News of the impending battle had spread rapidly through the countryside, and thousands of spectators had gathered on the New Jersey beaches to watch the engagement. After fifteen minutes of combat, ''Boston'' lost its cross-jack yard and by 05:45 had suffered significant damage to its rigging and sails, rendering the ship significantly less manoeuvrable than ''Embuscade''. At 06:10 the main topmast was knocked over and the mizzen mast badly damaged, and ten minutes later, as he was exhorting his men to greater efforts, a cannonball struck the rail where Captain Courtenay and

Royal Marine The Corps of Royal Marines (RM), also known as the Royal Marines Commandos, are the UK's special operations capable commando force, amphibious light infantry and also one of the five fighting arms of the Royal Navy. The Corps of Royal Marine ...

Lieutenant James Butler were standing.James, p. 101 Butler was killed instantly and Courtenay fell to the deck unresponsive, possibly killed. Believing his commander to be dead, Lieutenant John Edwards assumed command and had the bodies thrown overboard in an effort to prevent his sailors losing morale from the death of their captain. ''Boston'' continued to suffer under the heavier guns of the French ship and by 06:40 the mizzen mast was close to collapse and much of the remaining rigging had been shot away. Casualties mounted, with Lieutenant Edwards and Lieutenant

Alexander Kerr Alexander John Henry Kerr (2 December 1892 – 4 December 1964) was an English marine engineer and wholesale newsagent. He is best known for his service in the Imperial Trans-Antarctic Expedition of 1914–1916, for which he was awarded the Sil ...

both badly wounded, the latter blinded in one eye and the former struck on the head and briefly rendered unconscious. With their officers gone and their ship in an increasingly battered state, panic began to spread through the British crew. In response Edwards was assisted to the deck and assumed command. While confusion overtook ''Boston'', Bompart remained in command of his ship despite heavy casualties and manoeuvred around to the British ship's stern, intending to finish the battle with a raking broadside. With difficulty Edwards wore away from the threat and recognised that continued resistance would be futile, turning ''Boston'' towards the open sea away from ''Embuscade'' and setting all remaining sail to escape. At 07:07, Bompart began in pursuit, but his ship was also damaged and could not match the speed of the smaller British vessel. At 08:00, with ''Boston'' ahead and stretching the distance, the French captain abandoned the chase and turned back towards New York.James, p. 102

Aftermath

So badly damaged was Bompart's ship that he was not able to dock in New York until 2 August and repairs to his vessel, including the replacement of all three masts, were not completed until 9 October.James, p. 103 Accounts of the battle in the American media claimed that ''Embuscade'''s losses amounted to 50 men killed or wounded during the action from a crew of 340 men. ''Boston'' limped southwards in desperate need of repairs and initially attempted to anchor in the

. On taking on a pilot, Lieutenant Edwards was informed that the French frigates ''Concorde'' and ''Inconstante'' were anchored at Mud Fort. Aware that his ship would be rapidly overwhelmed by such a force, Edwards disembarked the pilot and sailed north, eventually bringing his battered vessel into St John's, Newfoundland.Woodman, p. 31 Losses aboard ''Boston'' amounted to ten killed and 24 wounded from a crew of 204, the dead including Captain Courtenay. In recognition of his service, Courtenay's widow was presented with a pension of £500 (the equivalent of £ as of ) and his two children with £50 per annum. Edwards' subsequent career was shortened by injury, but Bompart was presented with a gold medal on his return to France, and remained a prominent figure in the French Navy, serving at the

Glorious First of June The Glorious First of June (1 June 1794), also known as the Fourth Battle of Ushant, (known in France as the or ) was the first and largest fleet action of the naval conflict between the Kingdom of Great Britain and the First French Republic ...

in 1794 and leading the French expeditionary force that unsuccessfully attempted to invade

Ireland Ireland ( ; ga, Éire ; Ulster Scots dialect, Ulster-Scots: ) is an island in the Atlantic Ocean, North Atlantic Ocean, in Northwestern Europe, north-western Europe. It is separated from Great Britain to its east by the North Channel (Grea ...

in 1798 and was destroyed at the

Battle of Tory Island The Battle of Tory Island (sometimes called the Battle of Donegal, Battle of Lough Swilly or Warren's Action) was a naval action of the French Revolutionary Wars, fought on 12 October 1798 between French and British squadrons off the northwes ...

.Clowes, p. 344 Edwards' report contained his account of Courtenay's death in battle, and it was widely accepted at the time. However, rumours began circulating that Courtenay had not been killed but merely stunned by the blow, and that his death may have come as a result of Edwards order for him to be thrown overboard.Crawford, p. 392 This second account was accepted by Courtenay's family and shortly after Edwards' death in January 1823 from the effects of the wound he received in the action with ''Embuscade'', the naval officer and historian Edward Pelham Brenton published his work ''Naval History of Great Britain from the Year 1783 to 1822'', in which he wrote that: This version of events was refuted in 1827 by historian

, who wrote in response to Brenton that "All we

ames Ames may refer to: Places United States * Ames, Arkansas, a place in Arkansas * Ames, Colorado * Ames, Illinois * Ames, Indiana * Ames, Iowa, the most populous city bearing this name * Ames, Kansas * Ames, Nebraska * Ames, New York * Ames, Ok ...

can say to this extraordinary statement is, that our ames'account was taken chiefly from ''Boston''s log book, and we have not the least reason, from subsequent inquiries, to believe it to be incorrect." Subsequent histories, including

William Laird Clowes Sir William Laird Clowes (1 February 1856 – 14 August 1905) was a British journalist and historian whose principal work was ''The Royal Navy, A History from the Earliest Times to 1900'', a text that is still in print. He also wrote numerous ...

' book of 1900 and

Richard Woodman Captain Richard Martin Woodman LVO (born 1944) is an English novelist and naval historian who retired in 1997 from a 37-year nautical career, mainly working for Trinity House, to write full-time. Writing His main work is 14 novels about the car ...

's of 2001 follow James, but in his 1837 reprint Brenton defended the account and named Alexander Robert Kerr, second lieutenant of ''Boston'' during the action, as his source.Brenton, p. xviii In the same year a magazine article written by a niece of Captain Courtenay continued to repeat the allegations, stating that "the treacherous or – to say the least of it – the improper and ''unprofessional'' conduct of Lieutenant Edwards" had been responsible for his commander's death.Crawford, p. 391 After the battle, the ladies of Halifax launched a subscription to celebrate the crew of HMS ''Boston''. On the other hand, the population of New York had a golden medal made in honour of the crew of ''Embuscade''; Bompart accepted the medal on the condition he would not have to wear it, as the

National Convention The National Convention (french: link=no, Convention nationale) was the parliament of the Kingdom of France for one day and the French First Republic for the rest of its existence during the French Revolution, following the two-year National ...

had banned medals.Rouvier, p. 280

Notes

Bibliography

* * * Retrieved on 14 January 2010 * * * * {{cite book , last = Woodman , first = Richard , author-link = Richard Woodman , year = 2001 , chapter = , title = The Sea Warriors , publisher = Constable Publishers , location = London , isbn = 1-84119-183-3 Conflicts in 1793 Naval battles involving France Naval battles of the French Revolutionary Wars Naval battles involving Great Britain Military history of the Atlantic Ocean