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The ''Ashtiname'' of Muhammad, also known as the Covenant or Testament (''Testamentum'') of
Muhammad
Muhammad ( ar, مُحَمَّد; 570 – 8 June 632 Common Era, CE) was an Arab religious, social, and political leader and the founder of Islam. According to Muhammad in Islam, Islamic doctrine, he was a prophet Divine inspiration, di ...
, is a document which is a
charter
A charter is the grant of authority or rights, stating that the granter formally recognizes the prerogative of the recipient to exercise the rights specified. It is implicit that the granter retains superiority (or sovereignty), and that the rec ...
or
writ
In common law, a writ (Anglo-Saxon ''gewrit'', Latin ''breve'') is a formal written order issued by a body with administrative or judicial jurisdiction; in modern usage, this body is generally a court. Warrants, prerogative writs, subpoenas, a ...
written by
Ali
ʿAlī ibn Abī Ṭālib ( ar, عَلِيّ بْن أَبِي طَالِب; 600 – 661 CE) was the last of four Rightly Guided Caliphs to rule Islam (r. 656 – 661) immediately after the death of Muhammad, and he was the first Shia Imam. ...
and ratified by Muhammad granting protection and other privileges to the followers of
Jesus
Jesus, likely from he, יֵשׁוּעַ, translit=Yēšūaʿ, label=Hebrew/Aramaic ( AD 30 or 33), also referred to as Jesus Christ or Jesus of Nazareth (among other names and titles), was a first-century Jewish preacher and religious ...
, given to the Christian monks of
Saint Catherine's Monastery
Saint Catherine's Monastery ( ar, دير القدّيسة كاترين; grc-gre, Μονὴ τῆς Ἁγίας Αἰκατερίνης), officially the Sacred Autonomous Royal Monastery of Saint Katherine of the Holy and God-Trodden Mount Sinai, ...
. It is sealed with an imprint representing Muhammad's hand.
[Ratliff, "The monastery of Saint Catherine at Mount Sinai and the Christian communities of the Caliphate."]
''Āshtīnāmeh'' () is a
Persian
Persian may refer to:
* People and things from Iran, historically called ''Persia'' in the English language
** Persians, the majority ethnic group in Iran, not to be conflated with the Iranic peoples
** Persian language, an Iranian language of the ...
word meaning "Book of Peace", a Persian term for a treaty and covenant.
Document
English translation of the ''Ashtiname'' by Anton F. Haddad
* For other translations of the ''Ashtiname'', including the lists of witnesses, refer to ''The Covenants of the Prophet Muhammad with the Christians of the World'' (Angelico Press / Sophia Perennis, 2013) by Dr. John Andrew Morrow.
History
According to the monks' tradition, Muhammad frequented the monastery and had great relationships and discussions with the Sinai fathers.
Several certified historical copies are displayed in the library of St Catherine, some of which are witnessed by the judges of Islam to affirm historical authenticity. The monks claim that during the Ottoman conquest of Egypt in the
Ottoman–Mamluk War (1516–17) Ottoman–Mamluk War may refer to:
* Ottoman–Mamluk War (1485–91)
* Ottoman–Mamluk War (1516–17) Ottoman–Mamluk War may refer to:
* Ottoman–Mamluk War (1485–91)
* Ottoman–Mamluk War (1516–17)
{{disambiguation ...
{{disa ...
, the original document was seized from the monastery by Ottoman soldiers and taken to Sultan
Selim I
Selim I ( ota, سليم الأول; tr, I. Selim; 10 October 1470 – 22 September 1520), known as Selim the Grim or Selim the Resolute ( tr, links=no, Yavuz Sultan Selim), was the Sultan of the Ottoman Empire from 1512 to 1520. Despite last ...
's palace in
Istanbul
Istanbul ( , ; tr, İstanbul ), formerly known as Constantinople ( grc-gre, Κωνσταντινούπολις; la, Constantinopolis), is the List of largest cities and towns in Turkey, largest city in Turkey, serving as the country's economic, ...
for safekeeping.
A copy was then made to compensate for its loss at the monastery.
It also seems that the charter was renewed under the new rulers, as other documents in the archive suggest. Traditions about the tolerance shown towards the monastery were reported in governmental documents issued in Cairo and during the
period of Ottoman rule (1517–1798), the
Pasha
Pasha, Pacha or Paşa ( ota, پاشا; tr, paşa; sq, Pashë; ar, باشا), in older works sometimes anglicized as bashaw, was a higher rank in the Ottoman Empire, Ottoman political and military system, typically granted to governors, gener ...
of Egypt annually reaffirmed its protections.
In 1916, Na'um Shuqayr published the Arabic text of the ''Ashtiname'' in his ''Tarikh Sina al-qadim'' or ''History of Ancient Sinai''. The Arabic text, along with its German translation, was published for a second time in 1918 in Bernhard Moritz's ''Beiträge zur Geschichte des Sinai-Klosters''.
The ''Testamentum et pactiones inter Mohammedem et Christianae fidei cultores'', which was published in Arabic and Latin by
Gabriel Sionita
Gabriel Sionita (Syriac: Jibrā'īl aṣ-Ṣahyūnī; 1577 at Ehden in Lebanon – 1648 in Paris) was a learned Maronite priest, famous for his role in the publication of the 1645 Paris Polyglot of the Bible.
Life
Gabriel Sionita was born Jibra ...
in 1630 represents a covenant concluded between Muhammad and the Christians of the World. It is not a copy of the ''Ashtiname''.
The origins of the ''Ashtiname'' has been the subject of a number of different traditions, best known through the accounts of European travellers who visited the monastery.
These authors include the French knight Greffin Affagart (d. ''c''. 1557), the French traveller
Jean de Thévenot
Jean de Thévenot (16 June 1633 – 28 November 1667) was a French traveller in the East, who wrote extensively about his journeys. He was also a linguist, natural scientist and botanist.
Education
He was born in Paris and received his educat ...
(d. 1667) and the English prelate
Richard Peacocke,
who included an English translation of the text.
Authenticity
The document is generally accepted as authentic by modern and ancient scholars, including
Franciscus Quaresmius
Francisco Quaresmio or Quaresmi (4 April 1583 – 25 October 1650), better known by his Latinisation of names, Latin name Franciscus Quaresmius, was an Italian writer and oriental studies, Orientalist.
Life
Quaresmius was born at Lodi, Lomb ...
,
Balthasar de Monconys
Balthasar de Monconys (1611–1665) was a French traveller, diplomat, physicist and magistrate, who left a diary, which was published by his son as ''Journal des voyages de Monsieur de Monconys, Conseiller du Roy en ses Conseils d’Estat & Priv ...
, and
Kara Mustafa Pasha
Merzifonlu Kara Mustafa Pasha ( ota, مرزيفونلى قره مصطفى پاشا, tr, Merzifonlu Kara Mustafa Paşa; "Mustafa Pasha the Courageous of Merzifon"; 1634/1635 – 25 December 1683) was an Ottoman nobleman, military figure and Gr ...
.
Since the 19th century, several aspects of the ''Ashtiname'', notably the list of witnesses, have been questioned by some scholars. There are similarities to other documents granted to other religious communities in the Near East. One example is Muhammad's alleged letter to the Christians of
Najran
Najran ( ar, نجران '), is a city in southwestern Saudi Arabia near the border with Yemen. It is the capital of Najran Province. Designated as a new town, Najran is one of the fastest-growing cities in the kingdom; its population has risen fr ...
, which first came to light in 878 in a monastery in Iraq and whose text is preserved in the ''
Chronicle of Seert
The ''Chronicle of Seert'', sometimes called the , is an ecclesiastical history written in Arabic by an anonymous Nestorian writer, at an unknown date between the ninth and the eleventh century. There are grounds for believing that it is the wor ...
''.
At the beginning of the 20th century, Bernhard Moritz, in his seminal work, concluded from his analysis of the document, that: "The impossibility of finding this document to be authentic is clearly evident. The date, style and content all prove the inauthenticity." Amidu Sanni points out that there are no existent codices, Islamic or otherwise, which predate the 16th century, and Dr Mubasher Hussain has questioned the authenticity of the document on the basis of the fact it contains an impression of a hand which it is claimed belongs to that of Muhammad, but which, rather than showing the inside of the hand as might be expected, "surprisingly shows the outer side of the hand, which is possible only if it is taken using a camera!" Furthermore, he claims that "many language expressions used in this covenant" are dissimilar "to those of the Prophetic expressions preserved in the authentic hadith collections."
Modern influence
Some have argued that the ''Ashtiname'' is a resource for building bridges between Muslims and Christians. For example, in 2009, in the pages of ''
The Washington Post
''The Washington Post'' (also known as the ''Post'' and, informally, ''WaPo'') is an American daily newspaper published in Washington, D.C. It is the most widely circulated newspaper within the Washington metropolitan area and has a large nati ...
'',
Muqtedar Khan
Muhammad Abdul Muqtedar Khan (Urdu: ) ( hi, मोहम्मद अब्दुल मुक्तेदार ख़ान) (born 1966) is an Indian American academic and a professor in the Department of Political Science and International Re ...
translated the document in full, arguing that
The ''Ashtiname'' is the inspiration for ''The Covenants Initiative'' which urges all Muslims to abide by the treaties and covenants that were concluded by Muhammad with the Christian communities of his time.
In 2018, the final legal judgement in the Pakistani
Asia Bibi blasphemy case
In 2010, a Pakistani Christian woman, Aasiya Noreen ( ur, , translit=Āsiyāh Naurīn, ; born ), commonly known as Asia Bibi () or Aasia Bibi, was convicted of blasphemy by a Pakistani court and was sentenced to death by hanging.
In October ...
cited the covenant and said that one of Noreen's accusers violated the ''Ashtiname of Muhammad'', a "covenant made by Muhammad with Christians in the seventh century but still valid today".
In 2019,
Imran Khan
Imran Ahmed Khan Niazi ( ur}; born 5 October 1952) is a Pakistani politician and former Cricket captain who served as the 22nd Prime Minister of Pakistan from August 2018 to until April 2022, when he was ousted through a no-confidenc ...
, Prime Minister of Pakistan, cited the covenant in a speech delivered at the
World Government Summit
The World Government Summit is an annual event held in Dubai, United Arab Emirates. It brings together leaders in government for a global dialogue about governmental process and policies with a focus on the issues of futurism, technology innovati ...
.
See also
*
Constitution of Medina
The Constitution of Medina (, ''Dustūr al-Madīna''), also known as the Charter of Medina ( ar, صحيفة المدينة, ''Ṣaḥīfat al-Madīnah''; or: , ''Mīthāq al-Madina'' "Covenant of Medina"), is the modern name given to a document be ...
*
Marrakesh Declaration
The Marrakesh Declaration is a statement made in January 2016 by "more than 250 Muslim religious leaders, heads of state, and scholars", which champions "defending the rights of religious minorities in predominantly Muslim countries." The declarat ...
*
Seal of Muhammad
The Seal of Muhammad ( Turkish: Muhammed'in mührü, ar, ختم الرسول, KḪatm ar-Rasūl) is one of the relics of Muhammad kept in the Topkapı Palace by the Ottoman Sultans as part of the Sacred Relics collection.
The most popular des ...
References
Citations
Sources
*Ratliff, Brandie. "The monastery of Saint Catherine at Mount Sinai and the Christian communities of the Caliphate.
''Sinaiticus. The bulletin of the Saint Catherine Foundation'' (2008)archived
.
*Haddad, Anton F., trans.
The Oath of the Prophet Mohammed to the Followers of the Nazarene
'. New York: Board of Counsel, 1902; H-Bahai: Lansing, MI: 2004.
*Atiya, Aziz Suryal. "The Monastery of St. Catherine and the Mount Sinai Expedition." ''Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society
''Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society'' is a quarterly journal published by the American Philosophical Society since 1838. The journal contains papers which have been read at meetings of the American Philosophical Society each April ...
'' 96.5 (1952). pp. 578–86.
*Lafontaine-Dosogne, Jacqueline. "Le Monastère du Sinaï: creuset de culture chrétiene (Xe-XIIIe siècle)." In ''East and West in the Crusader states. Context – Contacts – Confrontations. Acta of the congress held at Hernen Castle in May 1993'', ed. Krijnie Ciggaar, Adelbert Davids, Herman Teule. Vol 1. Louvain: Peeters, 1996. pp. 103–129.
Further reading
Primary sources
;Arabic Editions of the ''Achtiname''
*Morrow, John Andrew. ''The Covenants of the Prophet Muhammad with the Christians of the World''. Kettering, OH: Angelico Press / Sophia Perennis, 2013.
*Amarah, Muhammad. ''al-Islam wa al-akhar''. Maktabah al-Sharq al-Dawliyyah, 2002.
*Moritz, Bernhard
''Beiträge zur Geschichte des Sinai-Klosters im Mittelalter nach arabischen Quellen''. Berlin, Verlag der königl. Akademie Der Wissenschaften, 1918.
(archive.org)
*Shuqayr, Na‘um. ''Tarikh Sina al-qadim wa al-hadith was jughrafiyatuha, ma‘a khulasat tarikh Misr wa al-Sham wa al-‘Iraq wa Jazirat al-‘Arab wa ma kana baynaha min al-‘ala’iq al-tijariyyah wa al-harbiyyah wa ghayriha ‘an tariq Sina’ min awwal ‘ahd al-tarikh il al-yawm''. l-Qahirah n.p., 1916.
;English, French, and German Translations of the ''Achtiname''
* Thévenot, Jean de. ''Relation d’un voyage fait au Levant''. Paris, L. Billaine, 1665.
* Pococke, Richard. 'Chapter XIV: The Patent of Mahomet, which he granted to the Monks of Mount Sinai; and to Christians in General.' ''Description of the East''. Vol. 1. London, 1743. pp. 268–70.
*Arundale, Francis. ''Illustrations of Jerusalem and Mount Sinai''. London: Henry Colburn, 1837.28–29
*Davenport, John. ''An Apology for Mohammed and the Koran''. London: J. Davy and Sons, 1869. 147–151.
*Naufal, Naufal Effendi. ranslation from Turkish into Arabic completed prior to 1902
*Moritz, Bernhard
''Beiträge zur Geschichte des Sinai-Klosters im Mittelalter nach arabischen Quellen''. Berlin, Verlag der königl. Akademie Der Wissenschaften, 1918.
(archive.org)
* Affagart, Greffin
''Relation de Terre Sainte'', ed. J. Chavanon. Paris: V. Lecoffre, 1902.
(archive.org)
*Haddad, Anton F., trans.
The Oath of the Prophet Mohammed to the Followers of the Nazarene
'. New York: Board of Counsel, 1902; H-Bahai: Lansing, MI: 2004.
*Skrobucha, Heinz. ''Sinai''. London: Oxford University Press, 1966.58.
*Hobbs, Joseph J. ''Mount Sinai''. Austin: University of Austin Press, 1995. 158–61.
*Morrow, John Andrew. ''The Covenants of the Prophet Muhammad with the Christians of the World''. Tacoma, WA: Angelico Press / Sophia Perennis, 2013.
Secondary sources
*
*Atiya, Aziz Suryal. "The Monastery of St. Catherine and the Mount Sinai Expedition." ''Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society
''Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society'' is a quarterly journal published by the American Philosophical Society since 1838. The journal contains papers which have been read at meetings of the American Philosophical Society each April ...
'' 96.5 (1952). pp. 578–86.
*
*Lafontaine-Dosogne, Jacqueline. "Le Monastère du Sinaï: creuset de culture chrétiene (Xe-XIIIe siècle)." In ''East and West in the Crusader states. Context – Contacts – Confrontations. Acta of the congress held at Hernen Castle in May 1993'', ed. Krijnie Ciggaar, Adelbert Davids, Herman Teule. Vol 1. Louvain: Peeters, 1996. pp. 103–129.
*
*
*
*
* A copy in the Simonopetra monastery
Simonopetra Monastery ( el, Σιμωνόπετρα, literally: "Simon's Rock"), also Monastery of Simonos Petra ( el, Μονή Σίμωνος Πέτρας), is an Eastern Orthodox monastery in the monastic state of Mount Athos in Greece. Simonopet ...
, p. 546.
*Ratliff, Brandie. "The monastery of Saint Catherine at Mount Sinai and the Christian communities of the Caliphate.
''Sinaiticus. The bulletin of the Saint Catherine Foundation'' (2008)archived
.
*
*
External links
*A complete and accurate translation of the charter can be read her
*An English translation of part of the charter can be rea
here
o
Downloadable PDF of the 1630 Arabic and Latin edition at Google Books.
{{Webarchive, url=https://web.archive.org/web/20051124152406/http://www.islamicvoice.com/august.99/zakir.htm#CHA , date=2005-11-24
Ashtiname of Muhammad (Persian)Ashtiname of Muhammad (Urdu)
7th-century Islam
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