![Netzgeraet](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/ee/Netzgeraet.jpg)
A power supply is an electrical device that supplies
electric power
Electric power is the rate at which electrical energy is transferred by an electric circuit. The SI unit of power is the watt, one joule per second. Standard prefixes apply to watts as with other SI units: thousands, millions and billions o ...
to an
electrical load
An electrical load is an electrical component or portion of a circuit that consumes (active) electric power, such as electrical appliances and lights inside the home. The term may also refer to the power consumed by a circuit. This is opposed t ...
. The main purpose of a power supply is to convert
electric current
An electric current is a stream of charged particles, such as electrons or ions, moving through an electrical conductor or space. It is measured as the net rate of flow of electric charge through a surface or into a control volume. The moving pa ...
from a source to the correct
voltage
Voltage, also known as electric pressure, electric tension, or (electric) potential difference, is the difference in electric potential between two points. In a static electric field, it corresponds to the work needed per unit of charge to m ...
,
current
Currents, Current or The Current may refer to:
Science and technology
* Current (fluid), the flow of a liquid or a gas
** Air current, a flow of air
** Ocean current, a current in the ocean
*** Rip current, a kind of water current
** Current (stre ...
, and
frequency
Frequency is the number of occurrences of a repeating event per unit of time. It is also occasionally referred to as ''temporal frequency'' for clarity, and is distinct from ''angular frequency''. Frequency is measured in hertz (Hz) which is eq ...
to power the load. As a result, power supplies are sometimes referred to as
electric power converter
In all fields of electrical engineering, power conversion is the process of converting electric energy from one form to another. A power converter is an electrical or electro-mechanical device for converting electrical energy. A power converter c ...
s. Some power supplies are separate standalone pieces of equipment, while others are built into the load appliances that they power. Examples of the latter include power supplies found in
desktop computer
A desktop computer (often abbreviated desktop) is a personal computer designed for regular use at a single location on or near a desk due to its size and power requirements. The most common configuration has a case that houses the power supply ...
s and
consumer electronics
Consumer electronics or home electronics are electronic (analog or digital) equipment intended for everyday use, typically in private homes. Consumer electronics include devices used for entertainment, communications and recreation. Usually r ...
devices. Other functions that power supplies may perform include limiting the current drawn by the load to safe levels, shutting off the current in the event of an
electrical fault
In an electric power system, a fault or fault current is any abnormal electric current. For example, a short circuit is a fault in which a live wire touches a neutral or ground wire. An open-circuit fault occurs if a circuit is interrupted by a fa ...
, power conditioning to prevent
electronic noise
In electronics, noise is an unwanted disturbance in an electrical signal.
Noise generated by electronic devices varies greatly as it is produced by several different effects.
In particular, noise is inherent in physics, and central to the ...
or
voltage surge
In electrical engineering, spikes are fast, short duration electrical transients in voltage (voltage spikes), current (current spikes), or transferred energy (energy spikes) in an electrical circuit.
Fast, short duration electrical transients ...
s on the input from reaching the load,
power-factor correction
In electrical engineering, the power factor of an AC power system is defined as the ratio of the '' real power'' absorbed by the load to the ''apparent power'' flowing in the circuit. Real power is the average of the instantaneous product of v ...
, and storing energy so it can continue to power the load in the event of a temporary interruption in the source power (
uninterruptible power supply
An uninterruptible power supply or uninterruptible power source (UPS) is an electrical apparatus that provides emergency power to a load when the input power source or mains power fails. A UPS differs from an auxiliary or emergency power system ...
).
All power supplies have a ''power input'' connection, which receives energy in the form of electric current from a source, and one or more ''power output'' or rail connections that deliver current to the load. The source power may come from the
electric power grid
An electrical grid is an interconnected network for electricity delivery from producers to consumers. Electrical grids vary in size and can cover whole countries or continents. It consists of:Kaplan, S. M. (2009). Smart Grid. Electrical Power ...
, such as an
electrical outlet
AC power plugs and sockets connect electric equipment to the alternating current (AC) mains electricity power supply in buildings and at other sites. Electrical plugs and sockets differ from one another in voltage and current rating, shape, si ...
,
energy storage
Energy storage is the capture of energy produced at one time for use at a later time to reduce imbalances between energy demand and energy production.
A device that stores energy is generally called an accumulator or battery.
Energy comes in ...
devices such as
batteries
Battery most often refers to:
* Electric battery, a device that provides electrical power
* Battery (crime), a crime involving unlawful physical contact
Battery may also refer to:
Energy source
*Automotive battery, a device to provide power t ...
or
fuel cell
A fuel cell is an electrochemical cell that converts the chemical energy of a fuel (often hydrogen) and an oxidizing agent (often oxygen) into electricity through a pair of redox reactions. Fuel cells are different from most batteries in requ ...
s,
generators or
alternator
An alternator is an electrical generator that converts mechanical energy to electrical energy in the form of alternating current. For reasons of cost and simplicity, most alternators use a rotating magnetic field with a stationary armature.Go ...
s,
solar power
Solar power is the conversion of energy from sunlight into electricity, either directly using photovoltaics (PV) or indirectly using concentrated solar power. Photovoltaic cells convert light into an electric current using the photovoltaic e ...
converters, or another power supply. The input and output are usually hardwired circuit connections, though some power supplies employ
wireless energy transfer
Wireless power transfer (WPT), wireless power transmission, wireless energy transmission (WET), or electromagnetic power transfer is the transmission of electrical energy without wires as a physical link. In a wireless power transmission system ...
to power their loads without wired connections. Some power supplies have other types of inputs and outputs as well, for functions such as external monitoring and control.
General classification
Functional
Power supplies are categorized in various ways, including by functional features. For example, a
''regulated'' power supply is one that maintains constant output voltage or current despite variations in load current or input voltage. Conversely, the output of an ''unregulated'' power supply can change significantly when its input voltage or load current changes. ''Adjustable'' power supplies allow the output voltage or current to be programmed by mechanical controls (e.g., knobs on the power supply front panel), or by means of a control input, or both. An ''adjustable regulated'' power supply is one that is both adjustable and regulated. An ''isolated'' power supply has a power output that is electrically independent of its power input; this is in contrast to other power supplies that share a common connection between power input and output.
Packaging
![Bench power supply](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/90/Bench_power_supply.jpg)
Power supplies are packaged in different ways and classified accordingly. A ''bench'' power supply is a stand-alone desktop unit used in applications such as circuit test and development. ''Open frame'' power supplies have only a partial mechanical enclosure, sometimes consisting of only a mounting base; these are typically built into machinery or other equipment. ''
Rack mount
A 19-inch rack is a standardized frame or enclosure for mounting multiple electronic equipment modules. Each module has a front panel that is wide. The 19 inch dimension includes the edges or "ears" that protrude from each side of the equ ...
'' power supplies are designed to be secured into standard electronic equipment racks. An ''integrated'' power supply is one that shares a common
printed circuit board
A printed circuit board (PCB; also printed wiring board or PWB) is a medium used in Electrical engineering, electrical and electronic engineering to connect electronic components to one another in a controlled manner. It takes the form of a L ...
with its load. An ''external'' power supply, ''AC adapter'' or ''power brick'', is a power supply located in the load's AC power cord that plugs into a wall outlet; a ''wall wart'' is an external supply integrated with the outlet plug itself. These are popular in consumer electronics because of their safety; the hazardous 120 or 240 volt main current is transformed down to a safer voltage before it enters the appliance body.
Power conversion method
Power supplies can be broadly divided into ''linear'' and ''switching'' types. Linear power converters process the input power directly, with all active power conversion components operating in their linear operating regions. In switching power converters, the input power is converted to AC or to DC pulses before processing, by components that operate predominantly in non-linear modes (e.g., transistors that spend most of their time in cutoff or saturation). Power is "lost" (converted to heat) when components operate in their linear regions and, consequently, switching converters are usually more efficient than linear converters because their components spend less time in linear operating regions.
Types
DC power supplies
An AC-to-DC power supply operates on an AC input voltage and generates a DC output voltage. Depending on application requirements the output voltage may contain large or negligible amounts of AC frequency components known as
ripple voltage Ripple (specifically ripple voltage) in electronics is the residual periodic variation of the DC voltage within a power supply which has been derived from an alternating current (AC) source. This ripple is due to incomplete suppression of the alt ...
, related to AC input voltage frequency and the power supply's operation. A DC power supply operating on DC input voltage is called a
DC-to-DC converter
A DC-to-DC converter is an electronic circuit or electromechanical device that converts a source of direct current (DC) from one voltage level to another. It is a type of electric power converter. Power levels range from very low (small batteries) ...
. This section focuses mostly on the AC-to-DC variant.
Linear power supply
In a linear power supply the AC input voltage passes through a
power transformer
A transformer is a passive component that transfers electrical energy from one electrical circuit to another circuit, or multiple circuits. A varying current in any coil of the transformer produces a varying magnetic flux in the transformer's c ...
and is then rectified and filtered to obtain a DC voltage. The filtering reduces the amplitude of AC mains frequency present in the rectifier output and can be as simple as a single capacitor or more complex such as a
pi filter
Electronic filters are a type of signal processing filter in the form of electrical circuits. This article covers those filters consisting of lumped electronic components, as opposed to distributed-element filters. That is, using components ...
. The electric load's tolerance of ripple dictates the minimum amount of filtering that must be provided by the power supply. In some applications, ripple can be entirely ignored. For example, in some battery charging applications, the power supply consists of just a transformer and a diode, with a simple resistor placed at the power supply output to limit the charging current.
Switched-mode power supply
In a
switched-mode power supply
A switched-mode power supply (switching-mode power supply, switch-mode power supply, switched power supply, SMPS, or switcher) is an electronic power supply that incorporates a switching regulator to convert electrical power efficiently.
Lik ...
(SMPS), the AC mains input is directly rectified and then filtered to obtain a DC voltage. The resulting DC voltage is then switched on and off at a high frequency by electronic switching circuitry, thus producing an AC current that will pass through a
high-frequency
High frequency (HF) is the ITU designation for the range of radio frequency electromagnetic waves (radio waves) between 3 and 30 megahertz (MHz). It is also known as the decameter band or decameter wave as its wavelengths range from one to ten ...
transformer or inductor. Switching occurs at a very high frequency (typically 10 kHz — 1 MHz), thereby enabling the use of
transformer
A transformer is a passive component that transfers electrical energy from one electrical circuit to another circuit, or multiple circuits. A varying current in any coil of the transformer produces a varying magnetic flux in the transformer' ...
s and filter capacitors that are much smaller, lighter, and less expensive than those found in linear power supplies operating at mains frequency. After the inductor or transformer secondary, the high frequency AC is rectified and filtered to produce the DC output voltage. If the SMPS uses an adequately insulated high-frequency transformer, the output will be
electrically isolated from the mains; this feature is often essential for safety.
Switched-mode power supplies are usually regulated, and to keep the output voltage constant, the power supply employs a feedback controller that monitors current drawn by the load. The switching
duty cycle
A duty cycle or power cycle is the fraction of one period in which a signal or system is active. Duty cycle is commonly expressed as a percentage or a ratio. A period is the time it takes for a signal to complete an on-and-off cycle. As a formu ...
increases as power output requirements increase.
SMPSs often include safety features such as current limiting or a
crowbar circuit
A crowbar, also called a wrecking bar, pry bar or prybar, pinch-bar, or occasionally a prise bar or prisebar, colloquially, in Britain and Australia sometimes called a jemmy or jimmy (also called jemmy bar), gooseneck, or pig foot, is a tool ...
to help protect the device and the user from harm. In the event that an abnormal high-current power draw is detected, the switched-mode supply can assume this is a direct short and will shut itself down before damage is done. PC power supplies often provide a ''
power good'' signal to the motherboard; the absence of this signal prevents operation when abnormal supply voltages are present.
Some SMPSs have an absolute limit on their minimum current output. They are only able to output above a certain power level and cannot function below that point. In a no-load condition the frequency of the power slicing circuit increases to great speed, causing the isolated transformer to act as a
Tesla coil
A Tesla coil is an electrical resonant transformer circuit designed by inventor Nikola Tesla in 1891. It is used to produce high-voltage, low-current, high-frequency alternating-current electricity. Tesla experimented with a number of different ...
, causing damage due to the resulting very high voltage power spikes. Switched-mode supplies with protection circuits may briefly turn on but then shut down when no load has been detected. A very small low-power
dummy load
A dummy load is a device used to simulate an electrical load, usually for testing purposes. In radio a dummy antenna is connected to the output of a radio transmitter and electrically simulates an antenna, to allow the transmitter to be adjuste ...
such as a ceramic power resistor or 10-watt light bulb can be attached to the supply to allow it to run with no primary load attached.
The switch-mode power supplies used in computers have historically had low
power factor
In electrical engineering, the power factor of an AC power system is defined as the ratio of the '' real power'' absorbed by the load to the ''apparent power'' flowing in the circuit. Real power is the average of the instantaneous product of v ...
s and have also been significant sources of line interference (due to induced
power line harmonics and transients). In simple switch-mode power supplies, the input stage may distort the line voltage waveform, which can adversely affect other loads (and result in poor power quality for other utility customers), and cause unnecessary heating in wires and distribution equipment. Furthermore, customers incur higher electric bills when operating lower power factor loads. To circumvent these problems, some computer switch-mode power supplies perform power factor correction, and may employ input filters or additional switching stages to reduce line interference.
Capacitive (transformerless) power supply
A
capacitive power supply
A capacitive power supply, also called a capacitive dropper, is a type of power supply that uses the capacitive reactance of a capacitor to reduce higher AC mains voltage to a lower DC voltage.
It is a relatively inexpensive method compared to ty ...
(transformerless power supply) uses the reactance of a
capacitor
A capacitor is a device that stores electrical energy in an electric field by virtue of accumulating electric charges on two close surfaces insulated from each other. It is a passive electronic component with two terminals.
The effect of ...
to reduce the mains voltage to a smaller AC voltage. Typically, the resulting reduced AC voltage is then rectified, filtered and regulated to produce a constant DC output voltage.
The output voltage is not isolated from the mains. Consequently, to avoid exposing people and equipment from hazardous high voltage, anything connected to the power supply must be reliably insulated.
The voltage reduction capacitor must withstand the full mains voltage, and it must also have enough capacitance to support maximum load current at the rated output voltage. Taken together, these constraints limit practical uses of this type of supply to low-power applications.
Linear regulator
The function of a ''
linear voltage regulator
In electronics, a linear regulator is a voltage regulator used to maintain a steady voltage. The resistance of the regulator varies in accordance with both the input voltage and the load, resulting in a constant voltage output. The regulating circ ...
'' is to convert a varying DC voltage to a constant, often specific, lower DC voltage. In addition, they often provide a
current limiting Current limiting is the practice of imposing a limit on the current that may be delivered to a load to protect the circuit generating or transmitting the current from harmful effects due to a short-circuit or overload. The term "current limiting" is ...
function to protect the power supply and load from ''overcurrent'' (excessive, potentially destructive current).
A constant output voltage is required in many power supply applications, but the voltage provided by many energy sources will vary with changes in load impedance. Furthermore, when an unregulated DC power supply is the energy source, its output voltage will also vary with changing input voltage. To circumvent this, some power supplies use a linear voltage regulator to maintain the output voltage at a steady value, independent of fluctuations in input voltage and load impedance. Linear regulators can also reduce the magnitude of ripple and noise on the output voltage.
AC power supplies
An AC power supply typically takes the voltage from a wall outlet (
mains supply
Mains electricity or utility power, power grid, domestic power, and wall power, or in some parts of Canada as hydro, is a general-purpose Alternating current, alternating-current (AC) electric power supply. It is the form of electrical power t ...
) and uses a transformer to step up or step down the voltage to the desired voltage. Some filtering may take place as well. In some cases, the source voltage is the same as the output voltage; this is called an
isolation transformer
An isolation transformer is a transformer used to transfer electrical power from a source of alternating current (AC) power to some equipment or device while isolating the powered device from the power source, usually for safety reasons or to re ...
. Other AC power supply transformers do not provide mains isolation; these are called
autotransformer
An autotransformer is an electrical transformer with only one winding. The "auto" (Greek for "self") prefix refers to the single coil acting alone, not to any kind of automatic mechanism. In an autotransformer, portions of the same winding act as ...
s; a variable output autotransformer is known as a
variac
An autotransformer is an electrical transformer with only one winding. The "auto" (Greek for "self") prefix refers to the single coil acting alone, not to any kind of automatic mechanism. In an autotransformer, portions of the same winding act as ...
. Other kinds of AC power supplies are designed to provide a nearly
constant current A constant current (steady current, time-independent current, stationary current) is a type of direct current (DC) that does not change its intensity with time.
Sources
If the load is constant, a steady current can be obtained via a constant vol ...
, and output voltage may vary depending on impedance of the load. In cases when the power source is direct current, (like an automobile storage battery), an
inverter
A power inverter, inverter or invertor is a power electronic device or circuitry that changes direct current (DC) to alternating current (AC). The resulting AC frequency obtained depends on the particular device employed. Inverters do the opp ...
and step-up transformer may be used to convert it to AC power. Portable AC power may be provided by an
alternator
An alternator is an electrical generator that converts mechanical energy to electrical energy in the form of alternating current. For reasons of cost and simplicity, most alternators use a rotating magnetic field with a stationary armature.Go ...
powered by a diesel or gasoline engine (for example, at a construction site, in an automobile or boat, or backup power generation for emergency services) whose current is passed to a regulator circuit to provide a constant voltage at the output. Some kinds of AC power conversion do not use a transformer. If the output voltage and input voltage are the same, and primary purpose of the device is to filter AC power, it may be called a
line conditioner
A power conditioner (also known as a line conditioner or power line conditioner) is a device intended to improve the quality of the power that is delivered to electrical load equipment. The term most often refers to a device that acts in one or ...
. If the device is designed to provide backup power, it may be called an
uninterruptable power supply
An uninterruptible power supply or uninterruptible power source (UPS) is an electrical apparatus that provides emergency power to a load when the input power source or mains power fails. A UPS differs from an auxiliary or emergency power system ...
. A circuit may be designed with a
voltage multiplier 280px, Villard cascade voltage multiplier.
A voltage multiplier is an electrical circuit that converts AC electrical power from a lower voltage to a higher DC voltage, typically using a network of capacitors and diodes.
Voltage multipliers can ...
topology to directly step-up AC power; formerly, such an application was a vacuum tube
AC/DC receiver.
In modern use, AC power supplies can be divided into
single phase
In electrical engineering, single-phase electric power (abbreviated 1φ) is the distribution of alternating current electric power using a system in which all the voltages of the supply vary in unison. Single-phase distribution is used when loads ...
and
three phase
Three-phase electric power (abbreviated 3φ) is a common type of alternating current used in electricity generation, transmission, and distribution. It is a type of polyphase system employing three wires (or four including an optional neutral r ...
systems. AC power Supplies can also be used to change the frequency as well as the voltage, they are often used by manufacturers to check the suitability of their products for use in other countries. 230 V 50 Hz or 115 60 Hz or even 400 Hz for avionics testing.
AC adapter
An AC adapter is a power supply built into an
AC mains power plug. AC adapters are also known by various other names such as "plug pack" or "plug-in adapter", or by slang terms such as "wall wart". AC adapters typically have a single AC or DC output that is conveyed over a hardwired cable to a connector, but some adapters have multiple outputs that may be conveyed over one or more cables. "Universal" AC adapters have interchangeable input connectors to accommodate different AC mains voltages.
Adapters with AC outputs may consist only of a passive
transformer
A transformer is a passive component that transfers electrical energy from one electrical circuit to another circuit, or multiple circuits. A varying current in any coil of the transformer produces a varying magnetic flux in the transformer' ...
(plus a few diodes in DC-output adapters), or they may employ switch-mode circuitry. AC adapters consume power (and produce electric and magnetic fields) even when not connected to a load; for this reason they are sometimes known as "electricity vampires", and may be plugged into
power strip
A power strip is a block of electrical sockets that attaches to the end of a flexible cable (typically with a mains plug on the other end), allowing multiple electrical devices to be powered from a single electrical socket. Power strips are often ...
s to allow them to be conveniently turned on and off.
Programmable power supply
![Hameg Power Supplies](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Hameg_Power_Supplies.jpg)
A programmable power supply (PPS) is one that allows remote control of its operation through an analog input or digital interface such as
RS-232
In telecommunications, RS-232 or Recommended Standard 232 is a standard originally introduced in 1960 for serial communication transmission of data. It formally defines signals connecting between a ''DTE'' (''data terminal equipment'') such a ...
or
GPIB Glycoprotein Ib (GPIb), also known as CD42,
is a component of the GPIb-V-IX complex on platelets. The GPIb-V-IX complex binds von Willebrand factor, allowing platelet adhesion and platelet plug formation at sites of vascular injury.
It is deficie ...
. Controlled properties may include voltage, current, and in the case of AC output power supplies, frequency. They are used in a wide variety of applications, including automated equipment testing,
crystal growth
A crystal is a solid material whose constituent atoms, molecules, or ions are arranged in an orderly repeating pattern extending in all three spatial dimensions. Crystal growth is a major stage of a crystallization process, and consists of the a ...
monitoring, semiconductor fabrication, and x-ray generators.
Programmable power supplies typically employ an integral microcomputer to control and monitor power supply operation. Power supplies equipped with a computer interface may use proprietary communication protocols or standard protocols and device control languages such as
SCPI.
Uninterruptible power supply
An uninterruptible power supply (UPS) takes its power from two or more sources simultaneously. It is usually powered directly from the AC mains, while simultaneously charging a storage battery. Should there be a dropout or failure of the mains, the battery instantly takes over so that the load never experiences an interruption. Instantly here should be defined as the speed of electricity within conductors which is somewhat near the speed of light. That definition is important because transmission of high speed data and communications service must have continuity/NO break of that service. Some manufacturers use a quasi standard of 4 milliseconds. However, with high speed data even 4 ms of time in transitioning from one source to another is not fast enough. The transition must be made in a break before make method. The UPS meeting that requirement is referred to as a True UPS or a Hybrid UPS. How much time the UPS will provide is most often based on batteries and in conjunction with generators. That time can range from a quasi minimum 5 to 15 minutes to hours or even days. In many computer installations, it is only enough time on batteries to give the operators time to shut down the system in an orderly way. Other UPS schemes may use an internal combustion engine or turbine to supply power during a utility power outage and the amount of battery time is then dependent upon how long it takes the generator to be on line and the criticality of the equipment served. Such a scheme is found in hospitals, data centers, call centers, cell sites and telephone central offices.
High-voltage power supply
![HighVoltagePowerSupply](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/94/HighVoltagePowerSupply.jpg)
A high-voltage power supply is one that outputs hundreds or thousands of volts. A special output connector is used that prevents
arcing
An electric arc, or arc discharge, is an electrical breakdown of a gas that produces a prolonged electrical discharge. The electric current, current through a normally Electrical conductance, nonconductive medium such as air produces a plasma (p ...
, insulation breakdown and accidental human contact. Federal Standard connectors are typically used for applications above 20 kV, though other types of connectors (e.g.,
SHV connector The SHV (safe high voltage) connector is a type of RF connector used for terminating a coaxial cable.
The connector uses a bayonet mount similar to those of the BNC and MHV connectors, but is easily distinguished due to its very thick and protru ...
) may be used at lower voltages. Some high-voltage power supplies provide an analog input or digital communication interface that can be used to control the output voltage. High-voltage power supplies are commonly used to accelerate and manipulate electron and ion beams in equipment such as
x-ray generator
An X-ray generator is a device that produces X-rays. Together with an X-ray detector, it is commonly used in a variety of applications including medicine, X-ray fluorescence, electronic assembly inspection, and measurement of material thickness ...
s,
electron microscope
An electron microscope is a microscope that uses a beam of accelerated electrons as a source of illumination. As the wavelength of an electron can be up to 100,000 times shorter than that of visible light photons, electron microscopes have a hi ...
s, and
focused ion beam
Focused ion beam, also known as FIB, is a technique used particularly in the semiconductor industry, materials science and increasingly in the biological field for site-specific analysis, deposition, and ablation of materials. A FIB setup is a s ...
columns, and in a variety of other applications, including
electrophoresis
Electrophoresis, from Ancient Greek ἤλεκτρον (ḗlektron, "amber") and φόρησις (phórēsis, "the act of bearing"), is the motion of dispersed particles relative to a fluid under the influence of a spatially uniform electric fie ...
and
electrostatics
Electrostatics is a branch of physics that studies electric charges at rest (static electricity).
Since classical times, it has been known that some materials, such as amber, attract lightweight particles after rubbing. The Greek word for amber ...
.
High-voltage power supplies typically apply the bulk of their input energy to a
power inverter
A power inverter, inverter or invertor is a power electronic device or circuitry that changes direct current (DC) to alternating current (AC). The resulting AC frequency obtained depends on the particular device employed. Inverters do the opp ...
, which in turn drives a
voltage multiplier 280px, Villard cascade voltage multiplier.
A voltage multiplier is an electrical circuit that converts AC electrical power from a lower voltage to a higher DC voltage, typically using a network of capacitors and diodes.
Voltage multipliers can ...
or a high turns ratio, high-voltage transformer, or both (usually a transformer followed by a multiplier) to produce high voltage. The high voltage is passed out of the power supply through the special connector and is also applied to a
voltage divider
In electronics, a voltage divider (also known as a potential divider) is a passive linear circuit that produces an output voltage (''V''out) that is a fraction of its input voltage (''V''in). Voltage division is the result of distributing the in ...
that converts it to a low-voltage ''metering'' signal compatible with low-voltage circuitry. The metering signal is used by a closed-loop controller that regulates the high voltage by controlling inverter input power, and it may also be conveyed out of the power supply to allow external circuitry to monitor the high-voltage output.
Bipolar power supply
![Bipolar Power Supply](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/c9/Bipolar_Power_Supply.png)
A bipolar power supply operates in all four quadrants of the voltage/current
Cartesian Cartesian means of or relating to the French philosopher René Descartes—from his Latinized name ''Cartesius''. It may refer to:
Mathematics
*Cartesian closed category, a closed category in category theory
*Cartesian coordinate system, modern ...
plane, meaning that it will generate positive and negative voltages and currents as required to maintain regulation.
When its output is controlled by a low-level analog signal, it is effectively a low-bandwidth
operational amplifier
An operational amplifier (often op amp or opamp) is a DC-coupled high-gain electronic voltage amplifier with a differential input and, usually, a single-ended output. In this configuration, an op amp produces an output potential (relative to c ...
with high output power and seamless zero-crossings. This type of power supply is commonly used to power magnetic devices in scientific applications.
Specification
The suitability of a particular power supply for an application is determined by various attributes of the power supply, which are typically listed in the power supply's ''specification''. Commonly specified attributes for a power supply include:
* Input voltage type (AC or DC) and range
* Efficiency of power conversion
* The amount of
voltage
Voltage, also known as electric pressure, electric tension, or (electric) potential difference, is the difference in electric potential between two points. In a static electric field, it corresponds to the work needed per unit of charge to m ...
and
current
Currents, Current or The Current may refer to:
Science and technology
* Current (fluid), the flow of a liquid or a gas
** Air current, a flow of air
** Ocean current, a current in the ocean
*** Rip current, a kind of water current
** Current (stre ...
it can supply to its load
* How stable its output voltage or current is under varying line and load conditions
* How long it can supply energy without refueling or recharging (applies to power supplies that employ portable energy sources)
* Operating and storage temperature ranges
Commonly-used abbreviations used in power supply specifications:
* SCP - Short circuit protection
* OPP - Overpower (overload) protection
* OCP - Overcurrent protection
* OTP - Overtemperature protection
* OVP - Overvoltage protection
* UVP - Undervoltage protection
Thermal management
The power supply of an electrical system tends to generate heat. The higher the efficiency, the more heat is pulled away from the unit. There are many ways to manage the heat of a power supply unit. The types of cooling generally fall into two categories --
convection
Convection is single or multiphase fluid flow that occurs spontaneously due to the combined effects of material property heterogeneity and body forces on a fluid, most commonly density and gravity (see buoyancy). When the cause of the convec ...
and
conduction
Conductor or conduction may refer to:
Music
* Conductor (music), a person who leads a musical ensemble, such as an orchestra.
* Conductor (album), ''Conductor'' (album), an album by indie rock band The Comas
* Conduction, a type of structured f ...
. Common convection methods for cooling electronic power supplies include natural air flow, forced air flow, or other liquid flow over the unit. Common conduction cooling methods include
heat sinks
In thermodynamics, heat is defined as the form of energy crossing the boundary of a thermodynamic system by virtue of a temperature difference across the boundary. A thermodynamic system does not ''contain'' heat. Nevertheless, the term is al ...
, cold plates, and thermal compounds.
Overload protection
Power supplies often have protection from
short circuit
A short circuit (sometimes abbreviated to short or s/c) is an electrical circuit that allows a current to travel along an unintended path with no or very low electrical impedance. This results in an excessive current flowing through the circuit ...
or overload that could damage the supply or cause a fire.
Fuses
Fuse or FUSE may refer to:
Devices
* Fuse (electrical), a device used in electrical systems to protect against excessive current
** Fuse (automotive), a class of fuses for vehicles
* Fuse (hydraulic), a device used in hydraulic systems to protect ...
and
circuit breaker
A circuit breaker is an electrical safety device designed to protect an electrical circuit from damage caused by an overcurrent or short circuit. Its basic function is to interrupt current flow to protect equipment and to prevent the risk ...
s are two commonly used mechanisms for overload protection.
[Malmstadt, Enke and Crouch, Electronics and Instrumentation for Scientists, The Benjamin/Cummings Publishing Company, Inc., 1981, , Chapter 3.]
A fuse contains a short piece of wire which melts if too much current flows. This effectively disconnects the power supply from its load, and the equipment stops working until the problem that caused the overload is identified and the fuse is replaced.
Some power supplies use a very thin
wire link soldered in place as a fuse. Fuses in power supply units may be replaceable by the end user, but fuses in consumer equipment may require tools to access and change.
A circuit breaker contains an element that heats, bends and triggers a spring which shuts the circuit down. Once the element cools, and the problem is identified the breaker can be reset and the power restored.
Some PSUs use a
thermal cutout buried in the transformer rather than a fuse. The advantage is it allows greater current to be drawn for limited time than the unit can supply continuously. Some such cutouts are self resetting, some are single use only.
Current limiting
Some supplies use current limiting instead of cutting off power if overloaded. The two types of current limiting used are electronic limiting and impedance limiting. The former is common on lab bench PSUs, the latter is common on supplies of less than 3 watts output.
A
foldback current limiter reduces the output current to much less than the maximum non-fault current.
Applications
Power supplies are a fundamental component of many electronic devices and therefore used in a diverse range of applications. This list is a small sample of the many applications of power supplies.
Computers
A modern computer power supply is a switch-mode power supply that converts AC power from the mains supply, to several DC voltages. Switch-mode supplies replaced linear supplies due to cost, weight, efficiency and size improvements. The diverse collection of output voltages also have widely varying current draw requirements.
Electric Vehicles
Electric vehicle
An electric vehicle (EV) is a vehicle that uses one or more electric motors for propulsion. It can be powered by a collector system, with electricity from extravehicular sources, or it can be powered autonomously by a battery (sometimes cha ...
s are those which rely on energy created through electricity generation. A power supply unit is part of the necessary design to convert high voltage vehicle battery power.
Welding
Arc welding
Arc welding is a welding process that is used to join metal to metal by using electricity to create enough heat to melt metal, and the melted metals, when cool, result in a binding of the metals. It is a type of welding that uses a welding powe ...
uses electricity to join metals by melting them. The electricity is provided by a ''welding power supply'', and can either be
AC or
DC. Arc welding requires high currents typically between 100 and 350
ampere
The ampere (, ; symbol: A), often shortened to amp,SI supports only the use of symbols and deprecates the use of abbreviations for units. is the unit of electric current in the International System of Units (SI). One ampere is equal to elect ...
s. Some types of welding can use as few as 10 amperes, while some applications of
spot welding
A spot welder
Spot welding (or resistance spot welding) is a type of electric resistance welding used to weld various sheet metal products, through a process in which contacting metal surface points are joined by the heat obtained from resistance ...
employ currents as high as 60,000 amperes for an extremely short time. Welding power supplies consisted of
transformer
A transformer is a passive component that transfers electrical energy from one electrical circuit to another circuit, or multiple circuits. A varying current in any coil of the transformer produces a varying magnetic flux in the transformer' ...
s or
engines
An engine or motor is a machine designed to convert one or more forms of energy into mechanical energy.
Available energy sources include potential energy (e.g. energy of the Earth's gravitational field as exploited in hydroelectric power ...
driving
generators; modern welding equipment uses
semiconductor
A semiconductor is a material which has an electrical resistivity and conductivity, electrical conductivity value falling between that of a electrical conductor, conductor, such as copper, and an insulator (electricity), insulator, such as glas ...
s and may include
microprocessor
A microprocessor is a computer processor where the data processing logic and control is included on a single integrated circuit, or a small number of integrated circuits. The microprocessor contains the arithmetic, logic, and control circu ...
control.
Aircraft
Both commercial and military avionic systems require either a DC-DC or AC/DC power supply to convert energy into usable voltage. These may often
operate at 400 Hz in the interest of weight savings.
Automation
This refers to conveyors, assembly lines, bar code readers, cameras, motors, pumps, semi-fabricated manufacturing and more.
Medical
These include ventilators, infusion pumps, surgical and dental instruments, imaging and beds.
See also
*
AC adapter
An AC adapter or AC/DC adapter is a type of external power supply, often enclosed in a case similar to an AC plug. Other common names include wall wart, power brick, wall charger, and power adapter. Adapters for battery-powered equipment may ...
*
Capacitive power supply
A capacitive power supply, also called a capacitive dropper, is a type of power supply that uses the capacitive reactance of a capacitor to reduce higher AC mains voltage to a lower DC voltage.
It is a relatively inexpensive method compared to ty ...
*
Electricity generation
Electricity generation is the process of generating electric power from sources of primary energy. For electric utility, utilities in the electric power industry, it is the stage prior to its Electricity delivery, delivery (Electric power transmi ...
*
High voltage
High voltage electricity refers to electrical potential large enough to cause injury or damage. In certain industries, ''high voltage'' refers to voltage above a certain threshold. Equipment and conductors that carry high voltage warrant spec ...
*
Mains electricity by country
Mains electricity by country includes a list of countries and territories, with the plugs, voltages and frequencies they commonly use for providing electrical power to low voltage appliances, equipment, and lighting typically found in homes and ...
*
Motor–generator
A motor–generator (an M–G set) is a device for converting electrical power to another form. Motor–generator sets are used to convert frequency, voltage, or phase of power. They may also be used to isolate electrical loads from the electr ...
*
Power cord
A power cord, line cord, or mains cable is an electrical cable that temporarily connects an appliance to the mains electricity supply via a wall socket or extension cord. The terms are generally used for cables using a power plug to connect t ...
*
Rectifier
A rectifier is an electrical device that converts alternating current (AC), which periodically reverses direction, to direct current (DC), which flows in only one direction. The reverse operation (converting DC to AC) is performed by an Power ...
*
Sense (electronics) {{Short description, Technique used in power supplies to produce the correct voltage for a load
In electronics, sense is a technique used in power supplies to produce the correct voltage for a load. Although simple batteries naturally maintain a s ...
*
Voltage regulator
A voltage regulator is a system designed to automatically maintain a constant voltage. A voltage regulator may use a simple feed-forward design or may include negative feedback. It may use an electromechanical mechanism, or electronic components ...
*
Power supply manufacturers
References
External links
Understanding Linear Power Supply OperationLoad Power Sources for Peak Efficiency, James Colotti, EDN 1979 October 5
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