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The 19th (nineteenth) century began on 1 January 1801 ( MDCCCI), and ended on 31 December 1900 ( MCM). The 19th century was the ninth century of the 2nd millennium. The 19th century was characterized by vast social upheaval.
Slavery Slavery and enslavement are both the state and the condition of being a slave—someone forbidden to quit one's service for an enslaver, and who is treated by the enslaver as property. Slavery typically involves slaves being made to perf ...
was abolished in much of
Europe Europe is a large peninsula conventionally considered a continent in its own right because of its great physical size and the weight of its history and traditions. Europe is also considered a subcontinent of Eurasia and it is located entirel ...
and the
Americas The Americas, which are sometimes collectively called America, are a landmass comprising the totality of North and South America. The Americas make up most of the land in Earth's Western Hemisphere and comprise the New World. Along with th ...
. The
First Industrial Revolution The Industrial Revolution was the transition to new manufacturing processes in Great Britain, continental Europe, and the United States, that occurred during the period from around 1760 to about 1820–1840. This transition included going fr ...
, though it began in the late 18th century, expanding beyond its British homeland for the first time during this century, particularly remaking the economies and societies of the
Low Countries The term Low Countries, also known as the Low Lands ( nl, de Lage Landen, french: les Pays-Bas, lb, déi Niddereg Lännereien) and historically called the Netherlands ( nl, de Nederlanden), Flanders, or Belgica, is a coastal lowland region in N ...
, the
Rhineland The Rhineland (german: Rheinland; french: Rhénanie; nl, Rijnland; ksh, Rhingland; Latinised name: ''Rhenania'') is a loosely defined area of Western Germany along the Rhine, chiefly its middle section. Term Historically, the Rhinelands ...
, Northern Italy, and the Northeastern United States. A few decades later, the
Second Industrial Revolution The Second Industrial Revolution, also known as the Technological Revolution, was a phase of rapid scientific discovery, standardization, mass production and industrialization from the late 19th century into the early 20th century. The Fi ...
led to ever more massive
urbanization Urbanization (or urbanisation) refers to the population shift from rural to urban areas, the corresponding decrease in the proportion of people living in rural areas, and the ways in which societies adapt to this change. It is predominantly t ...
and much higher levels of productivity, profit, and prosperity, a pattern that continued into the 20th century. The Islamic gunpowder empires fell into decline and European imperialism brought much of
South Asia South Asia is the southern subregion of Asia, which is defined in both geographical Geography (from Greek: , ''geographia''. Combination of Greek words ‘Geo’ (The Earth) and ‘Graphien’ (to describe), literally "earth descr ...
,
Southeast Asia Southeast Asia, also spelled South East Asia and South-East Asia, and also known as Southeastern Asia, South-eastern Asia or SEA, is the geographical south-eastern region of Asia, consisting of the regions that are situated south of mainlan ...
, and almost all of
Africa Africa is the world's second-largest and second-most populous continent, after Asia in both cases. At about 30.3 million km2 (11.7 million square miles) including adjacent islands, it covers 6% of Earth's total surface area ...
under
colonial rule Colonialism is a practice or policy of control by one people or power over other people or areas, often by establishing colony, colonies and generally with the aim of economic dominance. In the process of colonisation, colonisers may impose the ...
. It was also marked by the collapse of the large
Spanish Spanish might refer to: * Items from or related to Spain: **Spaniards are a nation and ethnic group indigenous to Spain **Spanish language, spoken in Spain and many Latin American countries **Spanish cuisine Other places * Spanish, Ontario, Can ...
and Mughal empires. This paved the way for the growing influence of the
British British may refer to: Peoples, culture, and language * British people, nationals or natives of the United Kingdom, British Overseas Territories, and Crown Dependencies. ** Britishness, the British identity and common culture * British English, ...
, French,
German German(s) may refer to: * Germany (of or related to) ** Germania (historical use) * Germans, citizens of Germany, people of German ancestry, or native speakers of the German language ** For citizens of Germany, see also German nationality law **Ge ...
,
Russian Russian(s) refers to anything related to Russia, including: *Russians (, ''russkiye''), an ethnic group of the East Slavic peoples, primarily living in Russia and neighboring countries *Rossiyane (), Russian language term for all citizens and peo ...
,
Italian Italian(s) may refer to: * Anything of, from, or related to the people of Italy over the centuries ** Italians, an ethnic group or simply a citizen of the Italian Republic or Italian Kingdom ** Italian language, a Romance language *** Regional Ita ...
, and
Japanese Japanese may refer to: * Something from or related to Japan, an island country in East Asia * Japanese language, spoken mainly in Japan * Japanese people, the ethnic group that identifies with Japan through ancestry or culture ** Japanese diaspor ...
empires along with the
United States The United States of America (U.S.A. or USA), commonly known as the United States (U.S. or US) or America, is a country primarily located in North America. It consists of 50 states, a federal district, five major unincorporated territori ...
. The British boasted unchallenged global dominance after 1815. After the defeat of
France France (), officially the French Republic ( ), is a country primarily located in Western Europe. It also comprises of overseas regions and territories in the Americas and the Atlantic, Pacific and Indian Oceans. Its metropolitan area ...
in the
Napoleonic Wars The Napoleonic Wars (1803–1815) were a series of major global conflicts pitting the French Empire and its allies, led by Napoleon I, against a fluctuating array of European states formed into various coalitions. It produced a period of Fren ...
, the British and Russian empires expanded greatly, becoming two of the world's leading powers. Russia expanded its territory to
Central Asia Central Asia, also known as Middle Asia, is a subregion, region of Asia that stretches from the Caspian Sea in the west to western China and Mongolia in the east, and from Afghanistan and Iran in the south to Russia in the north. It includes t ...
and the
Caucasus The Caucasus () or Caucasia (), is a region between the Black Sea and the Caspian Sea, mainly comprising Armenia, Azerbaijan, Georgia (country), Georgia, and parts of Southern Russia. The Caucasus Mountains, including the Greater Caucasus range ...
. The Ottomans underwent a period of
Westernization Westernization (or Westernisation), also Europeanisation or occidentalization (from the ''Occident''), is a process whereby societies come under or adopt Western culture in areas such as industry, technology, science, education, politics, econo ...
and reform known as the Tanzimat, vastly increasing their control over their core territories in the
Middle East The Middle East ( ar, الشرق الأوسط, ISO 233: ) is a geopolitical region commonly encompassing Arabia (including the Arabian Peninsula and Bahrain), Asia Minor (Asian part of Turkey except Hatay Province), East Thrace (Europ ...
. However, it remained in decline and became known as the
sick man of Europe "Sick man of Europe" is a label given to a nation which is located in some part of Europe and experiencing a time of economic difficulty or impoverishment. Emperor Nicholas I of the Russian Empire is considered to be the first to use the term " ...
, losing territory in the
Balkans The Balkans ( ), also known as the Balkan Peninsula, is a geographical area in southeastern Europe with various geographical and historical definitions. The region takes its name from the Balkan Mountains that stretch throughout the who ...
and
North Africa North Africa, or Northern Africa is a region encompassing the northern portion of the African continent. There is no singularly accepted scope for the region, and it is sometimes defined as stretching from the Atlantic shores of Mauritania in ...
. The remaining powers in the
Indian subcontinent The Indian subcontinent is a list of the physiographic regions of the world, physiographical region in United Nations geoscheme for Asia#Southern Asia, Southern Asia. It is situated on the Indian Plate, projecting southwards into the Indian O ...
such as the
Maratha The Marathi people ( Marathi: मराठी लोक) or Marathis are an Indo-Aryan ethnolinguistic group who are indigenous to Maharashtra in western India. They natively speak Marathi, an Indo-Aryan language. Maharashtra was formed as ...
and Sikh empires have suffered a massive decline and their dissatisfaction with the
British East India Company The East India Company (EIC) was an English, and later British, joint-stock company founded in 1600 and dissolved in 1874. It was formed to trade in the Indian Ocean region, initially with the East Indies (the Indian subcontinent and South ...
's rule led to the
Indian Rebellion of 1857 The Indian Rebellion of 1857 was a major uprising in India in 1857–58 against the rule of the British East India Company, which functioned as a sovereign power on behalf of the British Crown. The rebellion began on 10 May 1857 in the fo ...
, marking its dissolution. India was later ruled directly by the British Crown through the establishment of the
British Raj The British Raj (; from Hindi ''rāj'': kingdom, realm, state, or empire) was the rule of the British Crown on the Indian subcontinent; * * it is also called Crown rule in India, * * * * or Direct rule in India, * Quote: "Mill, who was him ...
. Britain's overseas possessions grew rapidly in the first half of the century, especially with the expansion of vast territories in Canada, Australia, South Africa, India, and in the last two decades of the century in Africa. By the end of the century, the British controlled a fifth of the world's land and one-quarter of the world's population. During the post-Napoleonic era, it enforced what became known as the
Pax Britannica ''Pax Britannica'' (Latin for "British Peace", modelled after '' Pax Romana'') was the period of relative peace between the great powers during which the British Empire became the global hegemonic power and adopted the role of a " global pol ...
, which had ushered in unprecedented
globalization Globalization, or globalisation (English in the Commonwealth of Nations, Commonwealth English; American and British English spelling differences#-ise, -ize (-isation, -ization), see spelling differences), is the process of foreign relation ...
on a massive scale.


Overview

The first
electronics The field of electronics is a branch of physics and electrical engineering that deals with the emission, behaviour and effects of electrons using electronic devices. Electronics uses active devices to control electron flow by amplification ...
appeared in the 19th century, with the introduction of the
electric relay A relay Electromechanical relay schematic showing a control coil, four pairs of normally open and one pair of normally closed contacts An automotive-style miniature relay with the dust cover taken off A relay is an electrically operated switch ...
in 1835, the
telegraph Telegraphy is the long-distance transmission of messages where the sender uses symbolic codes, known to the recipient, rather than a physical exchange of an object bearing the message. Thus flag semaphore is a method of telegraphy, whereas p ...
and its Morse code protocol in 1837, the first telephone call in 1876, and the first functional light bulb in 1878. The 19th century was an era of rapidly accelerating
scientific discovery Discovery is the act of detecting something new, or something previously unrecognized as meaningful. With reference to sciences and academic disciplines, discovery is the observation of new phenomena, new actions, or new events and providing ne ...
and invention, with significant developments in the fields of mathematics, physics, chemistry, biology, electricity, and metallurgy that laid the groundwork for the technological advances of the 20th century. The
Industrial Revolution The Industrial Revolution was the transition to new manufacturing processes in Great Britain, continental Europe, and the United States, that occurred during the period from around 1760 to about 1820–1840. This transition included going f ...
began in Great Britain and spread to continental Europe, North America, and Japan. The
Victorian era In the history of the United Kingdom and the British Empire, the Victorian era was the period of Queen Victoria's reign, from 20 June 1837 until her death on 22 January 1901. The era followed the Georgian period and preceded the Edwardia ...
was notorious for the employment of young children in factories and mines, as well as strict social norms regarding modesty and gender roles. Japan embarked on a program of rapid modernization following the
Meiji Restoration The , referred to at the time as the , and also known as the Meiji Renovation, Revolution, Regeneration, Reform, or Renewal, was a political event that restored practical imperial rule to Japan in 1868 under Emperor Meiji. Although there were ...
, before defeating China, under the
Qing dynasty The Qing dynasty ( ), officially the Great Qing,, was a Manchu-led imperial dynasty of China and the last orthodox dynasty in Chinese history. It emerged from the Later Jin dynasty founded by the Jianzhou Jurchens, a Tungusic-spea ...
, in the
First Sino-Japanese War The First Sino-Japanese War (25 July 1894 – 17 April 1895) was a conflict between China and Japan primarily over influence in Korea. After more than six months of unbroken successes by Japanese land and naval forces and the loss of the ...
. Advances in medicine and the understanding of human anatomy and disease prevention took place in the 19th century, and were partly responsible for rapidly accelerating population growth in the
Western world The Western world, also known as the West, primarily refers to the various nations and states in the regions of Europe, North America, and Oceania.
. Europe's population doubled during the 19th century, from approximately 200 million to more than 400 million. The introduction of
railroads Rail transport (also known as train transport) is a means of transport that transfers passengers and goods on wheeled vehicles running on rails, which are incorporated in tracks. In contrast to road transport, where the vehicles run on a prep ...
provided the first major advancement in land transportation for centuries, changing the way people lived and obtained goods, and fuelling major
urbanization Urbanization (or urbanisation) refers to the population shift from rural to urban areas, the corresponding decrease in the proportion of people living in rural areas, and the ways in which societies adapt to this change. It is predominantly t ...
movements in countries across the globe. Numerous cities worldwide surpassed populations of a million or more during this century. London became the world's largest city and capital of the British Empire. Its population increased from 1 million in 1800 to 6.7 million a century later. The last remaining undiscovered landmasses of Earth, including vast expanses of interior
Africa Africa is the world's second-largest and second-most populous continent, after Asia in both cases. At about 30.3 million km2 (11.7 million square miles) including adjacent islands, it covers 6% of Earth's total surface area ...
and
Asia Asia (, ) is one of the world's most notable geographical regions, which is either considered a continent in its own right or a subcontinent of Eurasia, which shares the continental landmass of Afro-Eurasia with Africa. Asia covers an are ...
, were explored during this century, and with the exception of the extreme zones of the Arctic and Antarctic, accurate and detailed maps of the globe were available by the 1890s.
Liberalism Liberalism is a political and moral philosophy based on the rights of the individual, liberty, consent of the governed, political equality and equality before the law."political rationalism, hostility to autocracy, cultural distaste for c ...
became the pre-eminent reform movement in Europe.
Slavery Slavery and enslavement are both the state and the condition of being a slave—someone forbidden to quit one's service for an enslaver, and who is treated by the enslaver as property. Slavery typically involves slaves being made to perf ...
was greatly reduced around the world. Following a successful slave revolt in Haiti,
Britain Britain most often refers to: * The United Kingdom, a sovereign state in Europe comprising the island of Great Britain, the north-eastern part of the island of Ireland and many smaller islands * Great Britain, the largest island in the United King ...
and France stepped up the battle against the Barbary pirates and succeeded in stopping their enslavement of Europeans. The UK's
Slavery Abolition Act The Slavery Abolition Act 1833 (3 & 4 Will. IV c. 73) was an Act of the Parliament of the United Kingdom which provided for the gradual abolition of slavery in most parts of the British Empire. It was passed by Earl Grey's reforming administrati ...
charged the British
Royal Navy The Royal Navy (RN) is the United Kingdom's naval warfare force. Although warships were used by English and Scottish kings from the early medieval period, the first major maritime engagements were fought in the Hundred Years' War against ...
with ending the global
slave trade Slavery and enslavement are both the state and the condition of being a slave—someone forbidden to quit one's service for an enslaver, and who is treated by the enslaver as property. Slavery typically involves slaves being made to perf ...
. The first colonial empire in the century to abolish slavery was the British, who did so in 1834. America's Thirteenth Amendment following their
Civil War A civil war or intrastate war is a war between organized groups within the same state (or country). The aim of one side may be to take control of the country or a region, to achieve independence for a region, or to change government policies ...
abolished slavery there in 1865, and in
Brazil Brazil ( pt, Brasil; ), officially the Federative Republic of Brazil (Portuguese: ), is the largest country in both South America and Latin America. At and with over 217 million people, Brazil is the world's fifth-largest country by area ...
slavery was abolished in 1888 (see abolitionism). Similarly,
serfdom Serfdom was the status of many peasants under feudalism, specifically relating to manorialism, and similar systems. It was a condition of debt bondage and indentured servitude with similarities to and differences from slavery, which deve ...
was abolished in
Russia Russia (, , ), or the Russian Federation, is a transcontinental country spanning Eastern Europe and Northern Asia. It is the largest country in the world, with its internationally recognised territory covering , and encompassing one-eig ...
in 1861. The 19th century was remarkable in the widespread formation of new settlement foundations which were particularly prevalent across North America and Australia, with a significant proportion of the two continents' largest cities being founded at some point in the century.
Chicago (''City in a Garden''); I Will , image_map = , map_caption = Interactive Map of Chicago , coordinates = , coordinates_footnotes = , subdivision_type = Country , subdivision_name ...
in the
United States The United States of America (U.S.A. or USA), commonly known as the United States (U.S. or US) or America, is a country primarily located in North America. It consists of 50 states, a federal district, five major unincorporated territori ...
and
Melbourne Melbourne ( ; Boonwurrung/Woiwurrung: ''Narrm'' or ''Naarm'') is the capital and most populous city of the Australian state of Victoria, and the second-most populous city in both Australia and Oceania. Its name generally refers to a met ...
in Australia were non-existent in the earliest decades but grew to become the 2nd largest cities in the United States and British Empire respectively by the end of the century. In the 19th century, approximately 70 million people left Europe, with most migrating to the United States. The 19th century also saw the rapid creation, development, and codification of many sports, particularly in Britain and the United States.
Association football Association football, more commonly known as football or soccer, is a team sport played between two teams of 11 players who primarily use their feet to propel the ball around a rectangular field called a pitch. The objective of the game is ...
,
rugby union Rugby union, commonly known simply as rugby, is a close-contact team sport that originated at Rugby School in the first half of the 19th century. One of the two codes of rugby football, it is based on running with the ball in hand. In it ...
,
baseball Baseball is a bat-and-ball sport played between two teams of nine players each, taking turns batting and fielding. The game occurs over the course of several plays, with each play generally beginning when a player on the fielding t ...
, and many other sports were developed during the 19th century, while the British Empire facilitated the rapid spread of sports such as
cricket Cricket is a bat-and-ball game played between two teams of eleven players on a field at the centre of which is a pitch with a wicket at each end, each comprising two bails balanced on three stumps. The batting side scores runs by str ...
to many different parts of the world. Also, women's fashion was a very sensitive topic during this time, as women showing their ankles was viewed to be scandalous. It also marks the fall of the
Ottoman rule Ottoman is the Turkish spelling of the Arabic masculine given name Uthman ( ar, عُثْمان, ‘uthmān). It may refer to: Governments and dynasties * Ottoman Caliphate, an Islamic caliphate from 1517 to 1924 * Ottoman Empire, in existence fro ...
of the
Balkans The Balkans ( ), also known as the Balkan Peninsula, is a geographical area in southeastern Europe with various geographical and historical definitions. The region takes its name from the Balkan Mountains that stretch throughout the who ...
which led to the creation of
Serbia Serbia (, ; Serbian: , , ), officially the Republic of Serbia (Serbian: , , ), is a landlocked country in Southeastern and Central Europe, situated at the crossroads of the Pannonian Basin and the Balkans. It shares land borders with Hungar ...
,
Bulgaria Bulgaria (; bg, България, Bǎlgariya), officially the Republic of Bulgaria,, ) is a country in Southeast Europe. It is situated on the eastern flank of the Balkans, and is bordered by Romania to the north, Serbia and North Macedo ...
,
Montenegro ) , image_map = Europe-Montenegro.svg , map_caption = , image_map2 = , capital = Podgorica , coordinates = , largest_city = capital , official_languages = M ...
, and
Romania Romania ( ; ro, România ) is a country located at the crossroads of Central, Eastern, and Southeastern Europe. It borders Bulgaria to the south, Ukraine to the north, Hungary to the west, Serbia to the southwest, Moldova to the east, and ...
as a result of the second Russo-Turkish War, which in itself followed the great
Crimean War The Crimean War, , was fought from October 1853 to February 1856 between Russia and an ultimately victorious alliance of the Ottoman Empire, France, the United Kingdom and Piedmont-Sardinia. Geopolitical causes of the war included the de ...
.


Eras

*
Industrial revolution The Industrial Revolution was the transition to new manufacturing processes in Great Britain, continental Europe, and the United States, that occurred during the period from around 1760 to about 1820–1840. This transition included going f ...
*
European imperialism Imperialism is the state policy, practice, or advocacy of extending power and dominion, especially by direct territorial acquisition or by gaining political and economic control of other areas, often through employing hard power (economic and ...
*
British Regency The Regency era of British history officially spanned the years 1811 to 1820, though the term is commonly applied to the longer period between and 1837. King George III succumbed to mental illness in late 1810 and, by the Regency Act 1811, h ...
,
Victorian era In the history of the United Kingdom and the British Empire, the Victorian era was the period of Queen Victoria's reign, from 20 June 1837 until her death on 22 January 1901. The era followed the Georgian period and preceded the Edwardia ...
(UK,
British Empire The British Empire was composed of the dominions, colonies, protectorates, mandates, and other territories ruled or administered by the United Kingdom and its predecessor states. It began with the overseas possessions and trading posts esta ...
) *
Bourbon Restoration Bourbon Restoration may refer to: France under the House of Bourbon: * Bourbon Restoration in France (1814, after the French revolution and Napoleonic era, until 1830; interrupted by the Hundred Days in 1815) Spain under the Spanish Bourbons: * ...
,
July Monarchy The July Monarchy (french: Monarchie de Juillet), officially the Kingdom of France (french: Royaume de France), was a liberal constitutional monarchy in France under , starting on 26 July 1830, with the July Revolution of 1830, and ending 23 F ...
,
French Second Republic The French Second Republic (french: Deuxième République Française or ), officially the French Republic (), was the republican government of France that existed between 1848 and 1852. It was established in February 1848, with the February Revo ...
,
Second French Empire The Second French Empire (; officially the French Empire, ), was the 18-year Empire, Imperial Bonapartist regime of Napoleon III from 14 January 1852 to 27 October 1870, between the French Second Republic, Second and the French Third Republic ...
,
French Third Republic The French Third Republic (french: Troisième République, sometimes written as ) was the system of government adopted in France from 4 September 1870, when the Second French Empire collapsed during the Franco-Prussian War, until 10 July 1940 ...
(
France France (), officially the French Republic ( ), is a country primarily located in Western Europe. It also comprises of Overseas France, overseas regions and territories in the Americas and the Atlantic Ocean, Atlantic, Pacific Ocean, Pac ...
) *
Belle Époque The Belle Époque or La Belle Époque (; French for "Beautiful Epoch") is a period of French and European history, usually considered to begin around 1871–1880 and to end with the outbreak of World War I in 1914. Occurring during the era ...
(Europe) *
Edo period The or is the period between 1603 and 1867 in the history of Japan, when Japan was under the rule of the Tokugawa shogunate and the country's 300 regional '' daimyo''. Emerging from the chaos of the Sengoku period, the Edo period was characteriz ...
,
Meiji period The is an era of Japanese history that extended from October 23, 1868 to July 30, 1912. The Meiji era was the first half of the Empire of Japan, when the Japanese people moved from being an isolated feudal society at risk of colonization ...
(Japan) *
Qing dynasty The Qing dynasty ( ), officially the Great Qing,, was a Manchu-led imperial dynasty of China and the last orthodox dynasty in Chinese history. It emerged from the Later Jin dynasty founded by the Jianzhou Jurchens, a Tungusic-spea ...
(China) *
Nguyen dynasty Nguyễn () is the most common Vietnamese surname. Outside of Vietnam, the surname is commonly rendered without diacritics as Nguyen. Nguyên (元)is a different word and surname. By some estimates 39 percent of Vietnamese people bear this su ...
(Vietnam) *
Joseon Joseon (; ; Middle Korean: 됴ᇢ〯션〮 Dyǒw syéon or 됴ᇢ〯션〯 Dyǒw syěon), officially the Great Joseon (; ), was the last dynastic kingdom of Korea, lasting just over 500 years. It was founded by Yi Seong-gye in July 1392 and re ...
dynasty (Korea) *
Zulu Kingdom The Zulu Kingdom (, ), sometimes referred to as the Zulu Empire or the Kingdom of Zululand, was a monarchy in Southern Africa. During the 1810s, Shaka established a modern standing army that consolidated rival clans and built a large following ...
(South Africa) * Tanzimat,
First Constitutional Era The First Constitutional Era ( ota, مشروطيت; tr, Birinci Meşrutiyet Devri) of the Ottoman Empire was the period of constitutional monarchy from the promulgation of the Ottoman constitution of 1876 (, , meaning ' Basic Law' or 'Fundamen ...
(
Ottoman Empire The Ottoman Empire, * ; is an archaic version. The definite article forms and were synonymous * and el, Оθωμανική Αυτοκρατορία, Othōmanikē Avtokratoria, label=none * info page on book at Martin Luther University) ...
) *
Russian Empire The Russian Empire was an empire and the final period of the Russian monarchy from 1721 to 1917, ruling across large parts of Eurasia. It succeeded the Tsardom of Russia following the Treaty of Nystad, which ended the Great Northern War. ...
* American Manifest Destiny, The Gilded Age,
Wild West The American frontier, also known as the Old West or the Wild West, encompasses the geography, history, folklore, and culture associated with the forward wave of American expansion in mainland North America that began with European colonial ...


Wars


Napoleonic Wars

The Napoleonic Wars were a series of major conflicts from 1803 to 1815 pitting the French Empire and its allies, led by
Napoleon I Napoleon Bonaparte ; it, Napoleone Bonaparte, ; co, Napulione Buonaparte. (born Napoleone Buonaparte; 15 August 1769 – 5 May 1821), later known by his regnal name Napoleon I, was a French military commander and political leader who ...
, against a fluctuating array of European powers formed into various coalitions, financed and usually led by the
United Kingdom The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, commonly known as the United Kingdom (UK) or Britain, is a country in Europe, off the north-western coast of the continental mainland. It comprises England, Scotland, Wales and North ...
. The wars stemmed from the unresolved disputes associated with the
French Revolution The French Revolution ( ) was a period of radical political and societal change in France that began with the Estates General of 1789 and ended with the formation of the French Consulate in November 1799. Many of its ideas are considere ...
and its resultant conflict. In the aftermath of the
French Revolution The French Revolution ( ) was a period of radical political and societal change in France that began with the Estates General of 1789 and ended with the formation of the French Consulate in November 1799. Many of its ideas are considere ...
,
Napoleon Bonaparte Napoleon Bonaparte ; it, Napoleone Bonaparte, ; co, Napulione Buonaparte. (born Napoleone Buonaparte; 15 August 1769 – 5 May 1821), later known by his regnal name Napoleon I, was a French military commander and political leader who ...
gained power in France in 1799. In 1804, he crowned himself
Emperor of the French Emperor of the French ( French: ''Empereur des Français'') was the title of the monarch and supreme ruler of the First and the Second French Empires. Details A title and office used by the House of Bonaparte starting when Napoleon was procl ...
. In 1805, the French victory over an Austrian-Russian army at the
Battle of Austerlitz The Battle of Austerlitz (2 December 1805/11 Frimaire An XIV FRC), also known as the Battle of the Three Emperors, was one of the most important and decisive engagements of the Napoleonic Wars. The battle occurred near the town of Austerlitz in ...
ended the
War of the Third Coalition The War of the Third Coalition) * In French historiography, it is known as the Austrian campaign of 1805 (french: Campagne d'Autriche de 1805) or the German campaign of 1805 (french: Campagne d'Allemagne de 1805) was a European conflict spanni ...
. As a result of the Treaty of Pressburg, the
Holy Roman Empire The Holy Roman Empire was a Polity, political entity in Western Europe, Western, Central Europe, Central, and Southern Europe that developed during the Early Middle Ages and continued until its Dissolution of the Holy Roman Empire, dissolution i ...
was dissolved. Later efforts were less successful. In the
Peninsular War The Peninsular War (1807–1814) was the military conflict fought in the Iberian Peninsula by Spain, Portugal, and the United Kingdom against the invading and occupying forces of the First French Empire during the Napoleonic Wars. In Spain ...
, France unsuccessfully attempted to establish
Joseph Bonaparte it, Giuseppe-Napoleone Buonaparte es, José Napoleón Bonaparte , house = Bonaparte , father = Carlo Buonaparte , mother = Letizia Ramolino , birth_date = 7 January 1768 , birth_place = Corte, Corsica, Republic of ...
as King of Spain. In 1812, the
French invasion of Russia The French invasion of Russia, also known as the Russian campaign, the Second Polish War, the Army of Twenty nations, and the Patriotic War of 1812 was launched by Napoleon Bonaparte to force the Russian Empire back into the continental block ...
had massive French casualties, and was a turning point in the
Napoleonic Wars The Napoleonic Wars (1803–1815) were a series of major global conflicts pitting the French Empire and its allies, led by Napoleon I, against a fluctuating array of European states formed into various coalitions. It produced a period of Fren ...
. In 1814, after defeat in the
War of the Sixth Coalition In the War of the Sixth Coalition (March 1813 – May 1814), sometimes known in Germany as the Wars of Liberation, a coalition of Austria, Prussia, Russia, Spain, the United Kingdom, Portugal, Sweden, and a number of German States defeated F ...
, Napoleon abdicated and was exiled to
Elba Elba ( it, isola d'Elba, ; la, Ilva) is a Mediterranean island in Tuscany, Italy, from the coastal town of Piombino on the Italian mainland, and the largest island of the Tuscan Archipelago. It is also part of the Arcipelago Toscano National ...
. Later that year, he escaped exile and began the
Hundred Days The Hundred Days (french: les Cent-Jours ), also known as the War of the Seventh Coalition, marked the period between Napoleon's return from eleven months of exile on the island of Elba to Paris on20 March 1815 and the second restoration ...
before finally being defeated at the
Battle of Waterloo The Battle of Waterloo was fought on Sunday 18 June 1815, near Waterloo, Belgium, Waterloo (at that time in the United Kingdom of the Netherlands, now in Belgium). A French army under the command of Napoleon was defeated by two of the armie ...
and exiled to
Saint Helena Saint Helena () is a British overseas territory located in the South Atlantic Ocean. It is a remote volcanic tropical island west of the coast of south-western Africa, and east of Rio de Janeiro in South America. It is one of three constitu ...
, an island in the
South Atlantic Ocean The Atlantic Ocean is the second-largest of the world's five oceans, with an area of about . It covers approximately 20% of Earth's surface and about 29% of its water surface area. It is known to separate the "Old World" of Africa, Europe and ...
. After Napoleon's defeat, the
Congress of Vienna The Congress of Vienna (, ) of 1814–1815 was a series of international diplomatic meetings to discuss and agree upon a possible new layout of the European political and constitutional order after the downfall of the French Emperor Napoleon B ...
was held to determine new national borders. The
Concert of Europe The Concert of Europe was a general consensus among the Great Powers of 19th-century Europe to maintain the European balance of power, political boundaries, and spheres of influence. Never a perfect unity and subject to disputes and jockeying f ...
attempted to preserve this settlement was established to preserve these borders, with limited impact.


Latin American independence

Mexico Mexico (Spanish: México), officially the United Mexican States, is a country in the southern portion of North America. It is bordered to the north by the United States; to the south and west by the Pacific Ocean; to the southeast by Guatema ...
and the majority of the countries in
Central America Central America ( es, América Central or ) is a subregion of the Americas. Its boundaries are defined as bordering the United States to the north, Colombia to the south, the Caribbean Sea to the east, and the Pacific Ocean to the west. ...
and
South America South America is a continent entirely in the Western Hemisphere and mostly in the Southern Hemisphere, with a relatively small portion in the Northern Hemisphere at the northern tip of the continent. It can also be described as the southe ...
obtained independence from
colonial Colonial or The Colonial may refer to: * Colonial, of, relating to, or characteristic of a colony or colony (biology) Architecture * American colonial architecture * French Colonial * Spanish Colonial architecture Automobiles * Colonial (1920 au ...
overlords during the 19th century. In 1804,
Haiti Haiti (; ht, Ayiti ; French: ), officially the Republic of Haiti (); ) and formerly known as Hayti, is a country located on the island of Hispaniola in the Greater Antilles archipelago of the Caribbean Sea, east of Cuba and Jamaica, and ...
gained independence from France. In
Mexico Mexico (Spanish: México), officially the United Mexican States, is a country in the southern portion of North America. It is bordered to the north by the United States; to the south and west by the Pacific Ocean; to the southeast by Guatema ...
, the
Mexican War of Independence The Mexican War of Independence ( es, Guerra de Independencia de México, links=no, 16 September 1810 – 27 September 1821) was an armed conflict and political process resulting in Mexico's independence from Spain. It was not a single, co ...
was a decade-long conflict that ended in Mexican independence in 1821. Due to the Napoleonic Wars, the royal family of Portugal relocated to Brazil from 1808 to 1821, leading to Brazil having a separate monarchy from Portugal. The
Federal Republic of Central America The Federal Republic of Central America ( es, República Federal de Centroamérica), originally named the United Provinces of Central America ( es, Provincias Unidas del Centro de América), and sometimes simply called Central America, in it ...
gained independence from Spain in 1821 and from Mexico in 1823. After several rebellions, by 1841 the federation had dissolved into the independent countries of
Guatemala Guatemala ( ; ), officially the Republic of Guatemala ( es, República de Guatemala, links=no), is a country in Central America. It is bordered to the north and west by Mexico; to the northeast by Belize and the Caribbean; to the east by H ...
, El Salvador, Honduras, Nicaragua, and Costa Rica. In 1830, the post-colonial nation of Gran Colombia dissolved and the nations of Colombia (including modern-day Panama), Ecuador, and Venezuela took its place.


Revolutions of 1848

The Revolutions of 1848 were a series of political upheavals throughout
Europe Europe is a large peninsula conventionally considered a continent in its own right because of its great physical size and the weight of its history and traditions. Europe is also considered a subcontinent of Eurasia and it is located entirel ...
in 1848. The revolutions were essentially democracy, democratic and liberal in nature, with the aim of removing the old Monarchy, monarchical structures and creating independent nation states. The first revolution began in Revolutions of 1848 in the Italian states, January in Sicily. Revolutions then spread across Europe after a separate revolution began in French Revolution of 1848, France in February. Over 50 countries were affected, but with no coordination or cooperation among their respective revolutionaries. According to Evans and von Strandmann (2000), some of the major contributing factors were widespread dissatisfaction with political leadership, demands for more participation in government and democracy, demands for freedom of the press, other demands made by the working class, the upsurge of nationalism, and the regrouping of established government forces.


Abolition and the American Civil War

The abolitionism movement achieved success in the 19th century. The Atlantic slave trade was abolished in the United States in 1808, and by the end of the century, almost every government had banned slavery. The
Slavery Abolition Act The Slavery Abolition Act 1833 (3 & 4 Will. IV c. 73) was an Act of the Parliament of the United Kingdom which provided for the gradual abolition of slavery in most parts of the British Empire. It was passed by Earl Grey's reforming administrati ...
of 1833 banned slavery throughout the
British Empire The British Empire was composed of the dominions, colonies, protectorates, mandates, and other territories ruled or administered by the United Kingdom and its predecessor states. It began with the overseas possessions and trading posts esta ...
, and the Lei Áurea abolished slavery in Brazil in 1888. Abolitionism in the United States continued until the end of the American Civil War. Frederick Douglass and Harriet Tubman were two of many American abolitionists who helped win the fight against slavery. Douglass was an articulate orator and incisive antislavery writer, while Tubman worked with a network of antislavery activists and safe houses known as the Underground Railroad. The American Civil War took place from 1861 to 1865. Eleven Southern United States, southern states seceded from the
United States The United States of America (U.S.A. or USA), commonly known as the United States (U.S. or US) or America, is a country primarily located in North America. It consists of 50 states, a federal district, five major unincorporated territori ...
, largely over concerns related to slavery. In 1863, President Abraham Lincoln issued the Emancipation Proclamation. Lincoln issued a preliminary on September 22, 1862 warning that in all states still in rebellion (Confederate States of America, Confederacy) on January 1, 1863, he would declare their slaves "then, thenceforward, and forever free." He did so. The Thirteenth Amendment to the Constitution, ratified in 1865, officially abolished slavery in the entire country. Five days after Robert E. Lee surrendered at Appomattox Courthouse, Virginia, Assassination of Abraham Lincoln, Lincoln was assassinated by actor and Confederate States of America, Confederate sympathiser John Wilkes Booth.


Decline of the Ottoman Empire

In 1830, Kingdom of Greece, Greece became the first country to break away from the Ottoman Empire after the Greek War of Independence. In 1831, the Bosnian uprising (1831–1832), Bosnian Uprising against Ottoman rule occurred. In 1817, the Principality of Serbia became Suzerainty, suzerain from the Ottoman Empire, and in 1867, it passed a constitution that defined its independence from the Ottoman Empire. In 1876, Bulgarians instigated the April Uprising of 1876, April Uprising against Ottoman rule. Following the Russo-Turkish War (1877–1878), Russo-Turkish War, the Treaty of Berlin (1878), Treaty of Berlin recognized the formal independence of the Serbia, Principality of Montenegro, Montenegro, and
Romania Romania ( ; ro, România ) is a country located at the crossroads of Central, Eastern, and Southeastern Europe. It borders Bulgaria to the south, Ukraine to the north, Hungary to the west, Serbia to the southwest, Moldova to the east, and ...
. Principality of Bulgaria, Bulgaria became autonomous.


China: Taiping Rebellion

The Taiping Rebellion was the bloodiest conflict of the 19th century, leading to the deaths of around 20-30 million people. Its leader, Hong Xiuquan, declared himself the younger brother of Jesus Christ and developed a new Chinese religion known as the God Worshipping Society. After proclaiming the establishment of the Taiping Heavenly Kingdom in 1851, the Taiping army conquered a large part of China, capturing Nanjing in 1853. In 1864, after the death of Hong Xiuquan, Qing Dynasty, Qing forces recaptured Nanjing and ended the rebellion.


Japan: Meiji Restoration

During the
Edo period The or is the period between 1603 and 1867 in the history of Japan, when Japan was under the rule of the Tokugawa shogunate and the country's 300 regional '' daimyo''. Emerging from the chaos of the Sengoku period, the Edo period was characteriz ...
, History of Japan, Japan largely pursued an Sakoku, isolationist foreign policy. In 1853, United States Navy Commodore Matthew C. Perry threatened the Japanese capital Edo with gunships, demanding that they agree to open trade. This led to Bakumatsu, the opening of trade relations between Japan and foreign countries, with the policy of Sakoku formally ended in 1854. By 1872, the Japanese government under Emperor Meiji had Abolition of the han system, eliminated the ''daimyō'' system and established a strong central government. Further reforms included the abolishment of the samurai class, rapid industrialization and modernization of government, closely following European models.


Colonialism

* 1803: United States more than doubles in size when it buys out France's territorial claims in North America via the Louisiana Purchase. This begins the U.S.'s westward expansion to the Pacific, referred to as its Manifest Destiny, which involves United States territorial acquisitions, annexing and conquering land from Mexico, Britain, and Native Americans. * 1817 – 1819: British Empire annexed the Maratha Empire, Maratha Confederacy after the Third Anglo-Maratha War. * 1823 – 1887: British Empire annexed Burma (now also called Myanmar) after three Anglo-Burmese Wars. * 1848 – 1849: Sikh Empire is defeated in the Second Anglo-Sikh War. Therefore, the entire
Indian subcontinent The Indian subcontinent is a list of the physiographic regions of the world, physiographical region in United Nations geoscheme for Asia#Southern Asia, Southern Asia. It is situated on the Indian Plate, projecting southwards into the Indian O ...
is under British control. * 1862: France gained its first foothold in
Southeast Asia Southeast Asia, also spelled South East Asia and South-East Asia, and also known as Southeastern Asia, South-eastern Asia or SEA, is the geographical south-eastern region of Asia, consisting of the regions that are situated south of mainlan ...
and in 1863 annexed Cambodia. * 1867: United States Alaska Purchase, purchased Alaska from Russia.


Africa

In Africa, European exploration and technology led to the colonization of almost the entire continent by 1898. New medicines such as quinine and more advanced firearms allowed European nations to conquer native populations. Motivations for the Scramble for Africa included national pride, desire for raw materials, and Christian missionary activity. Britain seized control of Egypt to ensure control of the Suez Canal, but Ethiopian Empire, Ethiopia defeated Italy in the First Italo–Ethiopian War at the Battle of Adwa. France, Belgium, Portugal, and Germany also had substantial colonies. The Berlin Conference of 1884–1885 attempted to reach agreement on colonial borders in Africa, but disputes continued, both amongst European powers and in resistance by the native populations. In 1867, diamonds were discovered in the Kimberley, Northern Cape, Kimberley region of South Africa. In 1886, gold was discovered in South African Republic, Transvaal. This led to colonization in Southern Africa by the British and business interests, led by Cecil Rhodes.


Other wars

* 1801–1815: First Barbary War and the Second Barbary War between the United States and the Barbary States of
North Africa North Africa, or Northern Africa is a region encompassing the northern portion of the African continent. There is no singularly accepted scope for the region, and it is sometimes defined as stretching from the Atlantic shores of Mauritania in ...
. * 1802: Tây Sơn dynasty, Tay Son army recaptured Thừa Thiên Huế province, Phu Xuan, causing Vo Tanh to commit suicide, Gia Long, Nguyen Phuc Anh successfully captured Hanoi, Thang Long, founded the Nguyen Dynasty * 1804–1810: Fulani War, Fulani Jihad in Nigeria. * 1804–1813: Russo-Persian War (1804–1813), Russo-Persian War. * 1806–1812: Russo-Turkish War (1806–1812), Russo-Turkish War, Treaty of Bucharest (1812), Treaty of Bucharest. * 1807–1837: Musket Wars among Māori people, Māori in many parts of New Zealand. * 1808–1809: Russia conquers Finland from Sweden in the Finnish War. * 1810: Grito de Dolores begins the
Mexican War of Independence The Mexican War of Independence ( es, Guerra de Independencia de México, links=no, 16 September 1810 – 27 September 1821) was an armed conflict and political process resulting in Mexico's independence from Spain. It was not a single, co ...
. * 1811: Battle of Tippecanoe: U.S outnumbering Native Americans resulting in defeat and burning of community * 1812–1815: War of 1812 between the United States and Britain; ends in a draw, except that Native Americans lose power. * 1813–1837: Afghan–Sikh Wars. * 1814–1816: Anglo-Nepalese War between Nepal (Gurkha Empire) and
British Empire The British Empire was composed of the dominions, colonies, protectorates, mandates, and other territories ruled or administered by the United Kingdom and its predecessor states. It began with the overseas possessions and trading posts esta ...
. * 1817: First Seminole War begins in Florida. * 1817: Russia commences its Caucasian War, conquest of the Caucasus. * 1820: Revolutions of 1820 in Southern Europe * 1821–1830: Greek War of Independence against the Ottoman Empire. * 1825–1830: Java War begins. * 1826–1828: After the final Russo-Persian War (1826–1828), Russo-Persian War, the Qajar dynasty, Persian Empire took back territory lost to Russia from the previous war. * 1828–1832: Black War in Tasmania leads to the near extinction of the Tasmanian aborigines * 1830: July Revolution overthrew old line of Bourbons. * 1830: November Uprising in Poland against Russia. * 1830: Belgian Revolution results in Belgium's independence from Netherlands. * 1830: End of the Java War. The whole area of Yogyakarta and Surakarta Manca nagara Dutch seized. 27 September, Klaten Agreement determines a fixed boundary between Surakarta and Yogyakarta and permanently divide the kingdom of Mataram was signed by Sasradiningrat, Pepatih Dalem Surakarta, and Danurejo, Pepatih Dalem Yogyakarta. Mataram is a de facto and de yure controlled by the Dutch East Indies. * 1831: France French rule in Algeria, invades and occupies Algeria. * 1831–1833: Egyptian–Ottoman War (1831–1833), Egyptian–Ottoman War. * 1832–1875: Regimental rebellions of Brazil * 1835–1836: Texas Revolution results in Texas's independence from
Mexico Mexico (Spanish: México), officially the United Mexican States, is a country in the southern portion of North America. It is bordered to the north by the United States; to the south and west by the Pacific Ocean; to the southeast by Guatema ...
. * 1839–1842: First Opium War begins. * 1846–1848: Mexican–American War leads to Mexico's cession of much of the modern-day Southwestern United States. * 1848: French Revolution of 1848, February Revolution overthrew Louis Philippe's government. Second Republic proclaimed; Louis Napoleon, nephew of Napoleon I, elected president. * 1853–1856:
Crimean War The Crimean War, , was fought from October 1853 to February 1856 between Russia and an ultimately victorious alliance of the Ottoman Empire, France, the United Kingdom and Piedmont-Sardinia. Geopolitical causes of the war included the de ...
between France, the United Kingdom, the Ottoman Empire and Russia. * 1857: Indian Rebellion of 1857, Indian Rebellion against the Company Raj. After this the power of the East India Company is transferred to the British Raj, British Crown. * 1859: Second Italian War of Independence, Franco-Austrian War is part of the wars of Italian unification. * 1861–1865: American Civil War between the Union (American Civil War), Union and seceding Confederate States of America, Confederacy. * 1861–1867: Second French intervention in Mexico, French intervention in Mexico and the creation of the Second Mexican Empire, ruled by Maximilian I of Mexico and his consort Carlota of Mexico. * 1863–1865: January Uprising against the
Russian Empire The Russian Empire was an empire and the final period of the Russian monarchy from 1721 to 1917, ruling across large parts of Eurasia. It succeeded the Tsardom of Russia following the Treaty of Nystad, which ended the Great Northern War. ...
. * 1864–1870: Paraguayan War ends Paraguayan ambitions for expansion and destroys much of the Paraguayan population. * 1866: Austro-Prussian War results in the dissolution of the German Confederation and the creation of the North German Confederation and the Austria-Hungary, Austrian-Hungarian Dual Monarchy. * 1868-1869: Boshin War results in end of the shogunate and the founding the Japanese Empire. * 1868–1878: Ten Years' War between Cuba and Kingdom of Spain, Spain. * 1870–1871: Franco-Prussian War results in the Unification of Germany, unifications of Germany Italian unification, and Italy, the collapse of the
Second French Empire The Second French Empire (; officially the French Empire, ), was the 18-year Empire, Imperial Bonapartist regime of Napoleon III from 14 January 1852 to 27 October 1870, between the French Second Republic, Second and the French Third Republic ...
and the emergence of a New Imperialism. * 1870: Napoleon III abdicated after unsuccessful conclusion of Franco-Prussian War. Third Republic proclaimed. * 1876: The April Uprising of 1876, April Uprising in Bulgaria against the Ottoman Empire. * 1879: Anglo-Zulu War results in British victory and the annexation of the
Zulu Kingdom The Zulu Kingdom (, ), sometimes referred to as the Zulu Empire or the Kingdom of Zululand, was a monarchy in Southern Africa. During the 1810s, Shaka established a modern standing army that consolidated rival clans and built a large following ...
. * 1879–1880: Little War (Cuba), Little War against Spanish rule in Cuba leads to rebel defeat. * 1879–1883: Chile battles with Peru and Bolivia over Andean territory in the War of the Pacific. * 1880–1881: First Boer War begins. * 1881–1899: Mahdist War in Anglo-Egyptian Sudan, Sudan. * 1882: Anglo-Egyptian War British invasion and subsequent occupation of Khedivate of Egypt, Egypt * 1883–1898: Mandingo Wars between the French colonial empire and the Wassoulou Empire of the Mandinka people, Mandingo people led by Samory Touré. * 1894–1895: After the
First Sino-Japanese War The First Sino-Japanese War (25 July 1894 – 17 April 1895) was a conflict between China and Japan primarily over influence in Korea. After more than six months of unbroken successes by Japanese land and naval forces and the loss of the ...
, China cedes Taiwan to Japan and grants Japan a free hand in Korea. * 1895: Taiwan is ceded to the Empire of Japan as a result of the
First Sino-Japanese War The First Sino-Japanese War (25 July 1894 – 17 April 1895) was a conflict between China and Japan primarily over influence in Korea. After more than six months of unbroken successes by Japanese land and naval forces and the loss of the ...
. * 1895–1896: Ethiopia defeats Italy in the First Italo–Ethiopian War at the Battle of Adwa. * 1895–1898: Cuban War for Independence results in Cuban independence from Spanish Empire, Spain. * 1896-1898: Philippine Revolution results in a Filipino victory. * 1898: Spanish–American War results in the independence of Cuba. * 1899–1901: Boxer Rebellion in China is suppressed by the Eight-Nation Alliance. * 1899–1902: Thousand Days' War in Colombia breaks out between the "Liberalism, Liberales" and "Conservatism, Conservadores", culminating with the loss of Panama in 1903. * 1899–1902: Second Boer War begins. * 1899–1902: Philippine–American War begins.


Science and technology

The 19th century saw the birth of science as a profession; the term scientist was coined in 1833 by William Whewell, which soon replaced the older term of natural philosopher. Among the most influential ideas of the 19th century were those of Charles Darwin (alongside the independent researches of Alfred Russel Wallace), who in 1859 published the book ''The Origin of Species'', which introduced the idea of evolution by natural selection. Another important landmark in medicine and biology were the successful efforts to prove the germ theory of disease. Following this, Louis Pasteur made the first vaccine against rabies, and also made many discoveries in the field of chemistry, including the Enantiomer, asymmetry of crystals. In chemistry, Dmitri Mendeleev, following the atomic theory of John Dalton, created the first periodic table of Chemical element, elements. In physics, the experiments, theories and discoveries of Michael Faraday, André-Marie Ampère, James Clerk Maxwell, and their contemporaries led to the creation of electromagnetism as a new branch of science. Thermodynamics led to an understanding of heat and the notion of energy was defined. Other highlights include the discoveries unveiling the nature of atomic structure and matter, simultaneously with chemistry – and of new kinds of radiation. In astronomy, the planet Neptune was discovered. In mathematics, the notion of complex numbers finally matured and led to a subsequent analytical theory; they also began the use of hypercomplex numbers. Karl Weierstrass and others carried out the arithmetization of analysis for functions of Function of a real variable, real and complex variables. It also saw rise to Non-Euclidean geometry, new progress in geometry beyond those classical theories of Euclid, after a period of nearly two thousand years. The mathematical science of logic likewise had revolutionary breakthroughs after a similarly long period of stagnation. But the most important step in science at this time were the ideas formulated by the creators of electrical science. Their work changed the face of physics and made possible for new technology to come about including a rapid spread in the use of electric illumination and power in the last two decades of the century and radio wave communication at the end of the 1890s. * 1807: Potassium and Sodium are individually isolated by Sir Humphry Davy. * 1831–1836: Charles Darwin's journey on . * 1859: Charles Darwin publishes ''On the Origin of Species''. * 1861: James Clerk Maxwell publishes ''On Physical Lines of Force'', formulating the four Maxwell's equations. * 1865: Gregor Mendel formulates his laws of inheritance. * 1869: Dmitri Mendeleev creates the Periodic table. * 1873: Maxwell's ''A Treatise on Electricity and Magnetism'' published. * 1877: Asaph Hall discovers the moons of Mars * 1896: Henri Becquerel discovers radioactivity; J. J. Thomson identifies the electron, though not by name.


Medicine

* 1804: Morphine first isolated. * 1842: Anesthesia used for the first time. * 1847: Chloroform invented for the first time, given to Queen Victoria at the birth of her eighth child, Prince Leopold, Duke of Albany, Prince Leopold in 1853 * 1855: Cocaine is isolated by Friedrich Gaedcke. * 1885: Louis Pasteur creates the first successful vaccine against rabies for a young boy who had been bitten 14 times by a rabid dog. * 1889: Aspirin patented.


Inventions

* 1804: First steam locomotive begins operation. * 1816: Dandy horse, Laufmaschine invented by Karl von Drais. * 1825: Erie Canal opened connecting the Great Lakes to the Atlantic Ocean. * 1825: First isolation of aluminum, aluminium. * 1825: The Stockton and Darlington Railway, the first public railway in the world, is opened. * 1826: Samuel Morey patents the internal combustion engine. * 1829: First electric motor built. * 1837: Telegraphy patented. * 1841: The word "dinosaur" is coined by Richard Owen. * 1844: First publicly funded
telegraph Telegraphy is the long-distance transmission of messages where the sender uses symbolic codes, known to the recipient, rather than a physical exchange of an object bearing the message. Thus flag semaphore is a method of telegraphy, whereas p ...
line in the world—between Baltimore and Washington—sends demonstration message on 24 May, ushering in the age of the telegraph. This message read "What hath God wrought?" (Bible, Numbers 23:23) * 1849: The safety pin and the gas mask are invented. * 1852: The first successful blimp is invented * 1855: Bessemer process enables steel to be mass-produced. * 1856: World's first oil refinery in Romania * 1858: Invention of the phonautograph, the first true device for recorded sound, recording sound. * 1859: The first ironclad was launched into sea by the French Navy. * 1860: Benjamin Tyler Henry invents the 16 - shot Henry Rifle * 1861: Richard Gatling invents the Gatling Gun, first modern machine gun used notably in the battles of Cold Harbor and Petersburg, Virginia, Petersburg * 1862: First meeting in combat of ironclad warships, and , during the American Civil War. * 1863: First section of the London Underground opens. * 1866: Successful transatlantic telegraph cable follows an earlier attempt in 1858. * 1867: Alfred Nobel invents dynamite. * 1868: Safety bicycle invented. * 1869: First transcontinental railroad completed in United States on 10 May. * 1870: Rasmus Malling-Hansen's invention the Hansen Writing Ball becomes the first commercially sold typewriter. * 1873: Jeans, Blue jeans and barbed wire are invented. * 1877: Thomas Edison invents the phonograph * 1878: First commercial telephone exchange in New Haven, Connecticut. * c. 1875/1880: Introduction of the widespread use of electric lighting. These included early crude systems in France and the UK and the introduction of large scale outdoor Arc lamp, arc lighting systems by 1880. * 1879: Thomas Edison patents a practical incandescent light bulb. * 1882: Introduction of large scale Electric power industry, electric power utilities with the Edison Holborn Viaduct power station, Holborn Viaduct (London) and Pearl Street Station, Pearl Street (New York) power stations supplying indoor electric lighting using Edison's incandescent bulb. * 1884: Sir Hiram Maxim invents the first self-powered Machine gun. * 1885: Singer Manufacturing Company, Singer begins production of the 'Singer Model 27 and 127, Vibrating Shuttle'. which would become the most popular model of sewing machine. * 1886: Karl Benz sells the first commercial automobile. * 1890: The cardboard box is invented. * 1892: John Froelich develops and constructs the first gasoline/petrol-powered tractor. * 1894: Karl Elsener (inventor), Karl Elsener invents the Swiss Army knife. * 1894: First gramophone record. * 1895: Wilhelm Röntgen identifies x-rays.


Religion

* 1818: The first permanent Reform Judaism congregation, the Hamburg Temple, Neuer Israelitischer Tempel, is founded in Hamburg on October 18. Around the same time, through the development of ''Wissenschaft des Judentums'', the seeds of Conservative Judaism are sown. * 1830: The Church of Christ (Latter Day Saints), Church of Jesus Christ of Latter Day Saints is established. * 1844: The Báb announces his revelation on 23 May, founding Bábism. He announced to the world of the coming of "He whom God shall make manifest". He is considered the forerunner of Bahá'u'lláh, the founder of the Baháʼí Faith. * 1850s–1890s: In Islam, Salafism grows in popularity. * 1851: Hong Xiuquan, the leader of the God Worshipping Society, founds the Taiping Heavenly Kingdom. * 1868: In Japan, State Shinto is established amidst the
Meiji Restoration The , referred to at the time as the , and also known as the Meiji Renovation, Revolution, Regeneration, Reform, or Renewal, was a political event that restored practical imperial rule to Japan in 1868 under Emperor Meiji. Although there were ...
. * 1869–1870: The First Vatican Council is convened, articulating the dogma of papal infallibility and promoting a Neo-scholasticism, revival of scholastic theology. * 1871–1878: In German Empire, Germany, Otto von Bismarck challenges the Catholic Church in the ''Kulturkampf'' ("Culture War") * 1875: Helena Blavatsky co-founds the Theosophical Society and becomes the leading articulator of Theosophy. * 1879: Mary Baker Eddy founds the Church of Christ, Scientist. ''The Watchtower,'' published by the Jehovah's Witnesses, releases its first issue. * 1881: In the Sudan, Muhammad Ahmad claims to be the Mahdi, founding the Mahdist State and declaring war on the Khedivate of Egypt. * 1889: Mirza Ghulam Ahmad establishes the Ahmadiyya, Ahmadiyya Muslim Community. * 1891: Pope Leo XIII issues the papal encyclical ''Rerum novarum'', the first major document informing modern Catholic social teaching.


Culture

* 1808: Beethoven composes Symphony No. 5 (Beethoven), Fifth Symphony * 1813: Jane Austen publishes ''Pride and Prejudice'' * 1818: Mary Shelley publishes ''Frankenstein''. * 1819: John Keats writes his John Keats's 1819 odes, six of his best-known odes. * 1819: Théodore Géricault paints his masterpiece ''The Raft of the Medusa'', and exhibits it in the French Salon of 1819 at the The Louvre, Louvre. * 1824: Premiere of Ludwig van Beethoven, Beethoven's ''Symphony No. 9 (Beethoven), Ninth Symphony''. * 1829: Johann Wolfgang von Goethe's ''Goethe's Faust, Faust'' premieres. * 1837: Charles Dickens publishes ''Oliver Twist''. * 1841: Ralph Waldo Emerson publishes ''Self-Reliance''. * 1845: Frederick Douglass publishes ''Narrative of the Life of Frederick Douglass, an American Slave''. * 1847: The Brontë sisters publish ''Jane Eyre'', ''Wuthering Heights'' and ''Agnes Grey''. * 1848: Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels publish ''The Communist Manifesto''. * 1849: Josiah Henson publishes The Life of Josiah Henson, Formerly a Slave, Now an Inhabitant of Canada, as Narrated by Himself. * 1851: Herman Melville publishes Moby-Dick. * 1851: Sojourner Truth delivers the speech Ain't I a Woman?. * 1852: Harriet Beecher Stowe publishes Uncle Tom's Cabin. * 1855: Walt Whitman publishes the first edition of ''Leaves of Grass''. * 1855: Frederick Douglass publishes the first edition of ''My Bondage and My Freedom''. * 1862: Victor Hugo publishes ''Les Misérables''. * 1863: Jules Verne begins publishing his collection of stories and novels, ''Voyages extraordinaires'', with the novel ''Cinq semaines en ballon''. * 1865: Lewis Carroll publishes Alice's Adventures in Wonderland. * 1869: Leo Tolstoy publishes ''War and Peace''. * 1875: Georges Bizet's opera Carmen premiers in Paris. * 1876: Richard Wagner's ''Ring Cycle'' is first performed in its entirety. * 1883: Robert Louis Stevenson's ''Treasure Island'' is published. * 1884: Mark Twain publishes the ''Adventures of Huckleberry Finn''. * 1886: "Strange Case of Dr Jekyll and Mr Hyde" by Robert Louis Stevenson is published. * 1887: Sir Arthur Conan Doyle publishes his first Sherlock Holmes story, ''A Study in Scarlet''. * 1889: Vincent van Gogh paints ''The Starry Night''. * 1889: Moulin Rouge opens in Paris. * 1892: Tchaikovsky's ''Nutcracker Suite'' premières in St Petersberg. * 1894: Rudyard Kipling's ''The Jungle Book'' is published * 1895: Trial of Oscar Wilde and premiere of his play ''The Importance of Being Earnest''. * 1897: Bram Stoker writes Dracula. * 1900: L. Frank Baum publishes The Wonderful Wizard of Oz.


Literature

On the literary front the new century opens with romanticism, a movement that spread throughout Europe in reaction to 18th-century rationalism, and it develops more or less along the lines of the Industrial Revolution, with a design to react against the dramatic changes wrought on nature by the steam engine and the railway. William Wordsworth and Samuel Taylor Coleridge are considered the initiators of the new school in England, while in the continent the German ''Sturm und Drang'' spreads its influence as far as Italy and Spain. French arts had been hampered by the
Napoleonic Wars The Napoleonic Wars (1803–1815) were a series of major global conflicts pitting the French Empire and its allies, led by Napoleon I, against a fluctuating array of European states formed into various coalitions. It produced a period of Fren ...
but subsequently developed rapidly. Modernism began. The Goncourts and Émile Zola in France and Giovanni Verga in Italy produce some of the finest Naturalism (literature), naturalist novels. Italian naturalist novels are especially important in that they give a social map of the new unified Italy to a people that until then had been scarcely aware of its ethnic and cultural diversity. There was a huge literary output during the 19th century. Some of the most famous writers included the Russians Alexander Pushkin, Nikolai Gogol, Leo Tolstoy, Anton Chekhov and Fyodor Dostoyevsky; the English Charles Dickens, John Keats, Alfred, Lord Tennyson and Jane Austen; the Scottish Sir Walter Scott, Thomas Carlyle and Arthur Conan Doyle (creator of the character Sherlock Holmes); the Irish Oscar Wilde; the Americans Edgar Allan Poe, Ralph Waldo Emerson, and Mark Twain; and the French Victor Hugo, Honoré de Balzac, Jules Verne, Alexandre Dumas and Charles Baudelaire. Some American literary writers, poets and novelists were: Walt Whitman, Mark Twain, Harriet Ann Jacobs, Nathaniel Hawthorne, Ralph Waldo Emerson, Herman Melville, Frederick Douglass, Harriet Beecher Stowe, Joel Chandler Harris, and Emily Dickinson to name a few.


Photography

*Ottomar Anschütz, chronophotographer *Mathew Brady, documented the American Civil War *Edward S. Curtis, documented the American West notably Native Americans in the United States, Native Americans *Louis Daguerre, inventor of daguerreotype process of photography, chemist *Thomas Eakins, pioneer motion photographer *George Eastman, inventor of Photographic film, roll film *Hércules Florence, pioneer inventor of photography *Auguste and Louis Lumière, pioneer film-makers, inventors *Étienne-Jules Marey, pioneer motion photographer, chronophotographer *Eadweard Muybridge, pioneer motion photographer, chronophotographer *Nadar (photographer), Nadar a.k.a. Gaspard-Félix Tournachon, portrait photographer *Nicéphore Niépce, pioneer inventor of photography *Louis Le Prince, motion picture inventor and pioneer film-maker *Sergey Prokudin-Gorsky, chemist and photographer *William Fox Talbot, inventor of the negative / positive photographic process.


Visual artists, painters, sculptors

The Realism (arts), Realism and Romanticism of the early 19th century gave way to Impressionism and Post-Impressionism in the later half of the century, with Paris being the dominant art capital of the world. In the United States the Hudson River School was prominent. 19th-century painters included: *Ivan Aivazovsky *Léon Bakst *Albert Bierstadt *William Blake *Arnold Böcklin *Rosa Bonheur *William Burges *Mary Cassatt *Camille Claudel *Paul Cézanne *Frederic Edwin Church *Thomas Cole *Jan Matejko *John Constable *Camille Corot *Gustave Courbet *Honoré Daumier *Edgar Degas *Eugène Delacroix *Thomas Eakins *Caspar David Friedrich *Paul Gauguin *Théodore Géricault *Vincent van Gogh *William Morris *Francisco Goya *Andō Hiroshige *Hokusai *Winslow Homer *Jean-Auguste-Dominique Ingres *Isaac Levitan *Édouard Manet *Claude Monet *Gustave Moreau *Berthe Morisot *Edvard Munch *Mikhail Nesterov *Camille Pissarro *Augustus Pugin *Pierre-Auguste Renoir *Ilya Repin *Auguste Rodin *Albert Pinkham Ryder *John Singer Sargent *Valentin Serov *Georges Seurat *Ivan Shishkin *Vasily Surikov *James Tissot *Henri de Toulouse-Lautrec *J. M. W. Turner, Joseph Mallord William Turner *Viktor Vasnetsov *Eugène Viollet-le-Duc *Mikhail Vrubel *James Abbott McNeill Whistler *Tsukioka Yoshitoshi


Music

Sonata form matured during the Classical era to become the primary form of instrumental compositions throughout the 19th century. Much of the music from the 19th century was referred to as being in the Romantic music, Romantic style. Many great composers lived through this era such as Ludwig van Beethoven, Franz Liszt, Frédéric Chopin, Pyotr Ilyich Tchaikovsky and Richard Wagner. The list includes: *Mily Balakirev *Ludwig van Beethoven *Hector Berlioz *Georges Bizet *Alexander Borodin *Johannes Brahms *Anton Bruckner *Frédéric Chopin *Claude Debussy *Antonín Dvořák *Mikhail Glinka *Edvard Grieg *Scott Joplin *Alexandre Levy *Franz Liszt *Gustav Mahler *Felix Mendelssohn *Modest Mussorgsky *Jacques Offenbach *Niccolò Paganini *Nikolai Rimsky-Korsakov *Gioachino Rossini *Anton Rubinstein *Camille Saint-Saëns *Antonio Salieri *Franz Schubert *Robert Schumann *Alexander Scriabin *Arthur Sullivan *Pyotr Ilyich Tchaikovsky *Giuseppe Verdi *Richard Wagner


Sports

* 1867: The Marquess of Queensberry Rules for boxing are published. * 1872: The first recognised international Association football, football match, between England and Scotland, is played. * 1877: The first test cricket match, between England and Australia, is played. * 1891: Basketball is invented by James Naismith. * 1895: Volleyball is invented. * 1896: Olympic Games#Revival, Olympic Games revived in Athens.


Events


1801–1850

* 1801: The Kingdom of Great Britain and the Kingdom of Ireland merge to form the
United Kingdom The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, commonly known as the United Kingdom (UK) or Britain, is a country in Europe, off the north-western coast of the continental mainland. It comprises England, Scotland, Wales and North ...
. * 1802: The Wahhabis of the First Saudi State Wahhabi sack of Karbala, sack Karbala. * 1803: William Symington demonstrates his ''Charlotte Dundas'', the "first practical steamboat". * 1803: The Wahhabis of the First Saudi State capture Mecca and Medina. * 1804: Austrian Empire founded by Francis II, Holy Roman Emperor, Francis I. * 1804: World population reaches 1 billion. * 1805: The Battle of Trafalgar eliminates the French and Spanish naval fleets and allows for British dominance of the seas, a major factor for the success of the
British Empire The British Empire was composed of the dominions, colonies, protectorates, mandates, and other territories ruled or administered by the United Kingdom and its predecessor states. It began with the overseas possessions and trading posts esta ...
later in the century. * 1805–1848: Muhammad Ali of Egypt, Muhammad Ali modernizes Egypt. * 1810: The Humboldt University of Berlin, University of Berlin was founded. Among its students and faculty are Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel, Hegel, Karl Marx, Marx, and Otto von Bismarck, Bismarck. The German university reform proves to be so successful that its model is copied around the world (see History of European universities#European university models in the 19th and 20th centuries, History of European research universities). * 1814: Elisha Collier invents the Flintlock Revolver. * 1814 : February 1 Eruption of Mayon Volcano * 1815: April, Mount Tambora in Sumbawa island erupts, becoming the largest volcanic eruption in recorded history, destroying Tambora culture, and killing at least 71,000 people, including its aftermath. The eruption created global climate anomalies known as "volcanic winter". * 1816: Year Without a Summer: Unusually cold conditions wreak havoc throughout the Northern Hemisphere, likely influenced by the 1815 explosion of Mount Tambora. * 1816–1828: Shaka's
Zulu Kingdom The Zulu Kingdom (, ), sometimes referred to as the Zulu Empire or the Kingdom of Zululand, was a monarchy in Southern Africa. During the 1810s, Shaka established a modern standing army that consolidated rival clans and built a large following ...
becomes the largest in Southern Africa. * 1819: The Colombia, Republic of Colombia (Gran Colombia) achieves independence after Simón Bolívar's triumph at the Battle of Boyacá. * 1819: The modern city of Singapore is established by the British East India Company. * 1820: Discovery of Antarctica. * 1820: History of Liberia, Liberia founded by the American Colonization Society for freed American slaves. * 1820: Dissolution of the Maratha Empire. * 1821–1823: First Mexican Empire, as Mexico's first post-independent government, ruled by Emperor Agustín de Iturbide, Agustín I of Mexico. * 1822: Pedro I of Brazil declared Brazil's independence from Portugal on 7 September. * 1823: Monroe Doctrine declared by US President James Monroe. * 1825: The Decembrist revolt. * 1829: Sir Robert Peel founds the Metropolitan Police Service, the first modern police force. * 1830: Anglo-Russian rivalry over Afghanistan, the Great Game, commences and concludes in 1895. * 1831: November Uprising ends with crushing defeat for Poland in the Battle of Warsaw (1831), Battle of Warsaw. * 1832: The British Parliament passes the Great Reform Act. * 1834–1859: Imam Shamil's rebellion in Russian-occupied
Caucasus The Caucasus () or Caucasia (), is a region between the Black Sea and the Caspian Sea, mainly comprising Armenia, Azerbaijan, Georgia (country), Georgia, and parts of Southern Russia. The Caucasus Mountains, including the Greater Caucasus range ...
. * 1835–1836: The Texas Revolution in Mexico resulted in the short-lived Republic of Texas. * 1836: Samuel Colt popularizes the revolver and sets up a firearms company to manufacture his invention of the Colt Paterson revolver a six bullets firearm shot one by one without reloading manually. * 1837–1838: Rebellions of 1837 in Canada. * 1838: By this time, 46,000 Native Americans have been forcibly relocated in the Trail of Tears. * 1839–1860: After the First Opium War, First and Second Opium Wars, France, the United Kingdom, the United States and Russia gain many Treaty ports, trade and associated concessions from China resulting in the start of the decline of the
Qing dynasty The Qing dynasty ( ), officially the Great Qing,, was a Manchu-led imperial dynasty of China and the last orthodox dynasty in Chinese history. It emerged from the Later Jin dynasty founded by the Jianzhou Jurchens, a Tungusic-spea ...
. * 1839–1919: Anglo-Afghan Wars lead to stalemate and the establishment of the Durand line * 1842: Treaty of Nanking cedes Hong Kong to the British. * 1843: The first wagon train sets out from Missouri. * 1844: Rochdale Society of Equitable Pioneers establish what is considered the first cooperative in the world. * 1845–1849: The Great Famine (Ireland), Great Famine of Ireland leads to the Irish diaspora. * 1848: ''The Communist Manifesto'' published. * 1848: Seneca Falls Convention is the first women's rights convention in the United States and leads to the History of Women's Suffrage in the United States, battle for women's suffrage. * 1848–1855: California Gold Rush. * 1849: Earliest recorded Airstrike, air raid, as Austria employs The Austrian balloons, 200 balloons to deliver ordnance against Venice. * 1850: The Little Ice Age ends around this time. * 1850: Franz Hermann Schulze-Delitzsch establishes the first cooperative banking, cooperative financial institution.


1851–1900

* 1851: The Great Exhibition in London was the world's first international Expo or World's fair, World Fair. * 1852: Frederick Douglass delivers his speech "The Meaning of July Fourth for the Negro" in Rochester, New York. * 1857: Sir Joseph Whitworth designs the first long-range sniper rifle. * 1857–1858:
Indian Rebellion of 1857 The Indian Rebellion of 1857 was a major uprising in India in 1857–58 against the rule of the British East India Company, which functioned as a sovereign power on behalf of the British Crown. The rebellion began on 10 May 1857 in the fo ...
. The British Empire assumes control of India from the East India Company. * 1858: Construction of Big Ben is completed. * 1859–1869: Suez Canal is constructed. * 1860: Giuseppe Garibaldi launches the Expedition of the Thousand. * 1861: Russia Emancipation reform of 1861 in Russia, abolishes serfdom. * 1862–1877: Dungan revolt (1862–1877), Muslim Rebellion in north-west China. * 1863: Formation of the International Red Cross and Red Crescent Movement, International Red Cross is followed by the adoption of the First Geneva Convention in 1864. * 1865–1877: Reconstruction era of the United States, Reconstruction in the United States; Slavery is banned in the United States by the Thirteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution. * 1868: Michael Barrett (Fenian), Michael Barrett is the last person to be publicly hanged in England. * 1869: The Suez Canal opens linking the Mediterranean Sea, Mediterranean to the Red Sea. * 1870: Official dismantling of the Cultivation System and beginning of a 'Liberal Period (Dutch East Indies), Liberal Policy' of deregulated exploitation of the Netherlands East Indies.Vickers (2005), page xii * 1870–1890: Long Depression in Western Europe and North America. * 1871–1872: List of famines, Famine in Iran, Persia is believed to have caused the death of 2 million. * 1871: The Paris Commune briefly rules the French capital. * 1872: Yellowstone National Park, the first national park, is created. * 1874: The ''Société Anonyme Coopérative des Artistes Peintres, Sculpteurs, and Graveurs'', better known as the Impressionists, organize and present their first public group exhibition at the Paris studio of the photographer Nadar (photographer), Nadar. * 1874: The Home Rule Movement is established in Ireland. * 1875: ''HMS Challenger'' surveys the deepest point in the Earth's oceans, the Challenger Deep * 1876: Battle of the Little Bighorn leads to the death of General Custer and victory for the alliance of Lakota people, Lakota, Northern Cheyenne, Cheyenne and Arapaho * 1876–1914: The massive expansion in population, territory, industry and wealth in the United States is referred to as the Gilded Age. * 1877: Great Railroad Strike in the United States may have been the world's first nationwide Strike action, labour strike. * 1881: Wave of Anti-Jewish pogroms in the Russian Empire, pogroms begins in the Russian Empire. * 1881–1882: The Jules Ferry laws are passed in French Third Republic, France establishing free, secular education. * 1883: Krakatoa volcano explosion, one of the largest in modern history. * 1883: The quagga is rendered extinct. * 1886: Construction of the Statue of Liberty; Coca-Cola is developed. * 1888: Founding of the shipping line ''Koninklijke Paketvaart-Maatschappij'' (KPM) that supported the unification and development of the colonial economy. * 1888: The Golden Law abolishes slavery in Brazil. * 1889: Eiffel Tower is inaugurated in Paris. * 1889: A republican military coup establishes the First Brazilian Republic. The Empire of Brazil, parliamentary constitutional monarchy is abolished. * 1889-1890: 1889–1890 pandemic kills 1 million people. * 1890: First use of the electric chair as a method of execution. * 1892: The World's Columbian Exposition was held in
Chicago (''City in a Garden''); I Will , image_map = , map_caption = Interactive Map of Chicago , coordinates = , coordinates_footnotes = , subdivision_type = Country , subdivision_name ...
celebrating the 400th anniversary of Christopher Columbus's arrival in the New World. * 1892: Fingerprinting is officially adopted for the first time. * 1893: New Zealand becomes the first country to enact women's suffrage. * 1893: The Coremans-de Vriendt law is passed in Belgium, creating legal equality for French language, French and Dutch languages. * 1894: The Dutch intervention in Lombok and Karangasem resulted in the looting and destruction of Cakranegara Palace in Mataram (city), Mataram.Wahyu Ernawati: "Chapter 8: The Lombok Treasure", in ''Colonial collections Revisited'': Pieter ter Keurs (editor) Vol. 152, CNWS publications. Issue 36 of ''Mededelingen van het Rijksmuseum voor Volkenkunde'', Leiden. CNWS Publications, 2007. . 296 pages. pp. 186–203 J. L. A. Brandes, a Dutch philologist, discovers and secures Nagarakretagama manuscript in Lombok royal library. * 1896: Philippine Revolution ends declaring Philippines free from Spanish rule. * 1898: The United States gains control of Cuba, Puerto Rico, and the Philippines after the Spanish–American War. * 1898: Empress Dowager Cixi of Qing Dynasty, China engineers a coup d'état, marking the end of the Hundred Days' Reform; the Guangxu Emperor is arrested. * 1900: Exposition Universelle (1900), Exposition Universelle held in Paris, prominently featuring the growing art trend Art Nouveau. * 1900–1901: Eight-Nation Alliance, Eight nations invade China at the same time and ransack Forbidden City.


Supplementary portrait gallery

File:Carl Friedrich Gauss 1840 by Jensen.jpg, Carl Friedrich Gauss File:Charles Robert Darwin by John Collier cropped.jpg, Charles Darwin File:Victor Hugo by Étienne Carjat 1876 - full.jpg, Victor Hugo c. 1876 File:Kramskoy Mendeleev 01.jpg, Dmitri Mendeleev File:Louis Pasteur.jpg, Louis Pasteur, 1878 File:Mariecurie.jpg, Marie Curie, c. 1898 File:Nikola Tesla by Sarony c1898.jpg, Nikola Tesla File:Jose Rizal full.jpg, José Rizal File:Jane Austen (chopped) 2.jpg, Jane Austen File:Leo Tolstoy 1897, black and white, 37767u.jpg, Leo Tolstoy c. 1897 File:Edgar Allan Poe 2.jpg, Edgar Allan Poe File:Félix_Nadar_1820-1910_portraits_Jules_Verne.jpg, Jules Verne File:Charles Dickens 3.jpg, Charles Dickens File:Carjat Arthur Rimbaud 1872 n2.jpg, Arthur Rimbaud c. 1872 File:Twain in Tesla's Lab.jpg, Mark Twain, 1894 File:RWEmerson.jpg, Ralph Waldo Emerson File:Benjamin D. Maxham - Henry David Thoreau - Restored - greyscale - straightened.jpg, Henry David Thoreau, August 1861. File:Emile Zola 2.jpg, Émile Zola, c. 1900 File:Chekhov 1903 ArM.jpg, Anton Chekhov File:Fyodor Mikhailovich Dostoyevsky 1876.jpg, Fyodor Dostoevsky, 1876 File:John L Sullivan.jpg, John L Sullivan in his prime, c. 1882 File:David Livingstone -1.jpg, David Livingstone 1864, left Great Britain, Britain for
Africa Africa is the world's second-largest and second-most populous continent, after Asia in both cases. At about 30.3 million km2 (11.7 million square miles) including adjacent islands, it covers 6% of Earth's total surface area ...
in 1840 File:Jesse and Frank James.gif, Jesse James, Jesse and Frank James, 1872 File:William Notman studios - Sitting Bull and Buffalo Bill (1895) edit.jpg, Sitting Bull and Buffalo Bill Cody, Montreal, Quebec, 1885 File:Goyaale.jpg, Geronimo, 1887, prominent leader of the Chiricahua Apache File:Billy the Kid corrected.jpg, William Bonney aka Henry McCarty aka Billy the Kid, c. late 1870s File:Wyatt Earp und Bat Masterson 1876.jpg, Deputies Bat Masterson and Wyatt Earp in Dodge City, 1876 File:Mathew Brady 1875 cropped.jpg, Mathew Brady, Self-portrait, c. 1875 File:Alfred Lord Tennyson 1869.jpg, Alfred, Lord Tennyson File:Thomas Nast - Brady-Handy.jpg, Thomas Nast, c. 1860–1875, photo by Mathew Brady or Levin Handy File:Hadhrat Mirza Ghulam Ahmad2.jpg, Mirza Ghulam Ahmad File:Bakunin.png, Mikhail Bakunin File:Kierkegaard.jpg, Søren Kierkegaard File:Solomon Northup 001 (cropped).jpg, Solomon Northup File:Dred Scott photograph (circa 1857).jpg, Dred Scott File:Madame CJ Walker.gif, Madam C. J. Walker File:Claude Monet, Impression, soleil levant.jpg, Claude Monet's ''Impression, Sunrise'', 1872, gave the name to Impressionism File:Paul Cézanne 159.jpg, Paul Cézanne, self-portrait, 1880–1881 File:Scott Joplin.jpg, Scott Joplin File:NiccoloPaganini.jpeg, Niccolò Paganini, c.1819 File:Eugène Ferdinand Victor Delacroix 043.jpg, Frédéric Chopin, 1838 File:John D. Rockefeller, Sr.jpg, John D. Rockefeller


See also

*Timelines of modern history *Long nineteenth century *19th century in film *19th century in games *19th-century philosophy *Nineteenth-century theatre *International relations (1814–1919) *List of wars: 1800–1899 *
Victorian era In the history of the United Kingdom and the British Empire, the Victorian era was the period of Queen Victoria's reign, from 20 June 1837 until her death on 22 January 1901. The era followed the Georgian period and preceded the Edwardia ...
*France in the long nineteenth century *History of Spain (1808–1874) *History of Russia (1855–1892) *Slavery in the United States *Timeline of 19th-century Muslim history *Timeline of historic inventions#19th century, Timeline of historic inventions


References


Further reading

* Langer, William. ''An Encyclopedia of World History'' (5th ed. 1973); highly detailed outline of event
online free
* Morris, Richard B. and Graham W. Irwin, eds. ''Harper Encyclopedia of the Modern World: A Concise Reference History from 1760 to the Present'' (1970
online frr
* ''New Cambridge Modern History'' (13 vol 1957–79), old but thorough coverage, mostly of Europe; strong on diplomacy **Bury, J. P. T. ed. ''The New Cambridge Modern History: Vol. 10: the Zenith of European Power, 1830–70'' (1964
online
**Crawley, C. W., ed. ''The New Cambridge Modern History Volume IX War and Peace In An Age of Upheaval 1793–1830'' (1965)
online
**Darby, H. C. and H. Fullard ''The New Cambridge Modern History, Vol. 14: Atlas'' (1972) **Hinsley, F.H., ed. ''The New Cambridge Modern History, vol. 11, Material Progress and World-Wide Problems 1870–1898'' (1979
online


Diplomacy and international relations

* * * Bridge, F. R. & Roger Bullen. ''The Great Powers and the European States System 1814–1914'', 2nd Ed. (2005) * * Herring, George C. ''Years of Peril and Ambition: U.S. Foreign Relations, 1776–1921'' (2017) * Paul Kennedy, Kennedy, Paul. The Rise and Fall of the Great Powers, ''The Rise and Fall of the Great Powers Economic Change and Military Conflict From 1500–2000'' (1987), stress on economic and military factors * Langer, William. ''European Alliances and Alignments 1870–1890'' (1950); advanced histor
online
* Langer, William. ''The Diplomacy of Imperialism 1890–1902'' (1950); advanced histor
online
* Mowat, R.B. ''A history of European diplomacy, 1815–1914'' (1922
online free
* * Porter, Andrew, ed. ''The Oxford History of the British Empire: Volume III: The Nineteenth Century'' (2001) * Sontag, Raymond. ''European Diplomatic History: 1871–1932'' (1933), basic summary; 425 p
online
* Taylor, A.J.P. ''The Struggle for Mastery in Europe 1848–1918'' (1954) 638 pp; advanced history and analysis of major diplomacy
online free
* Taylor, A.J.P. "International Relations" in F.H. Hinsley, ed., ''The New Cambridge Modern History: XI: Material Progress and World-Wide Problems, 1870–98'' (1962): 542–66
online
*


Europe

* Anderson, M. S. ''The Ascendancy of Europe: 1815–1914'' (3rd ed. 2003) * Blanning, T. C. W. ed. ''The Nineteenth Century: Europe 1789–1914'' (Short Oxford History of Europe) (2000) 320 pp * Bruun, Geoffrey. ''Europe and the French Imperium, 1799–1814 '' (1938
online
* Cameron, Rondo. ''France and the Economic Development of Europe, 1800–1914: Conquests of Peace and Seeds of War'' (1961), awide-ranging economic and business history. * Evans, Richard J. ''The Pursuit of Power: Europe 1815–1914'' (2016), 934 pp * Gildea, Robert. ''Barricades and Borders: Europe 1800–1914'' (3rd ed. 2003) 544 pp,
online 2nd ed, 1996
* * Mason, David S. ''A Concise History of Modern Europe: Liberty, Equality, Solidarity'' (2011), since 1700 * Merriman, John, and J. M. Winter, eds. ''Europe 1789 to 1914: Encyclopedia of the Age of Industry and Empire'' (5 vol. 2006) * Steinberg, Jonathan. ''Bismarck: A Life'' (2011) * Salmi, Hannu. ''19th Century Europe: A Cultural History'' (2008).


Asia, Africa

* Ajayi, J. F. Ade, ed. ''UNESCO General History of Africa, Vol. VI, Abridged Edition: Africa in the Nineteenth Century until the 1880s'' (1998) * * Chamberlain. M.E. ''The Scramble for Africa'' (3rd ed. 2010) * Collins, Robert O. and James M, Burns, eds. ''A History of Sub-Saharan Africa''. *Basil Davidson, Davidson, Basil ''Africa In History, Themes and Outlines''. (2nd ed. 1991). * * Ludden, David. ''India and South Asia: A Short History'' (2013). * McEvedy, Colin. ''The Penguin Atlas of African History'' (2nd ed. 1996)
excerpt
* Mansfield, Peter, and Nicolas Pelham, ''A History of the Middle East'' (4th ed, 2013). * * Pakenham, Thomas. ''The Scramble for Africa: 1876 to 1912'' (1992)


North and South America

*Bakewell, Peter, ''A History of Latin America'' (Blackwell, 1997) * Beezley, William, and Michael Meyer, eds. ''The Oxford History of Mexico'' (2010) * * Black, Conrad. ''Rise to Greatness: The History of Canada From the Vikings to the Present'' (2014) * Burns, E. Bradford, ''Latin America: A Concise Interpretive History'', paperback, PrenticeHall 2001, 7th edition * Howe, Daniel Walker. ''What Hath God Wrought: The Transformation of America, 1815–1848'' (2009), Pulitzer Prize * Kirkland, Edward C. ''A History Of American Economic Life'' (3rd ed. 1960
online
* Lynch, John, ed. ''Latin American revolutions, 1808–1826: old and new world origins'' (University of Oklahoma Press, 1994) * McPherson, James M. ''Battle Cry of Freedom The CIvil War Era'' (1988) Pulitzer Prize for US history * Parry, J.H. ''A Short History of the West Indies'' (1987) * Paxson, Frederic Logan. ''History of the American frontier, 1763–1893'' (1924)
online
Pulitzer Prize * White, Richard. ''The Republic for Which It Stands: The United States during Reconstruction and the Gilded Age, 1865–1896'' (2017)


Primary sources

* de Bary, Wm. Theodore, ed. ''Sources of East Asian Tradition, Vol. 2: The Modern Period'' (2008), 1192 pp * Kertesz, G.A. ed ''Documents in the Political History of the European Continent 1815–1939'' (1968), 507 pp; several hundred short documents


External links

* {{Authority control 19th century, 2nd millennium Centuries Late modern period