The (;

sign A sign is an object, quality, event, or entity whose presence or occurrence indicates the probable presence or occurrence of something else. A natural sign bears a causal relation to its object—for instance, thunder is a sign of storm, or me ...

: ℛℳ; abbreviation: RM) was the

currency A currency, "in circulation", from la, currens, -entis, literally meaning "running" or "traversing" is a standardization of money in any form, in use or circulation as a medium of exchange, for example banknotes and coins. A more general def ...

Germany Germany,, officially the Federal Republic of Germany, is a country in Central Europe. It is the second most populous country in Europe after Russia, and the most populous member state of the European Union. Germany is situated betwe ...

from 1924 until 20 June 1948 in

West Germany West Germany is the colloquial term used to indicate the Federal Republic of Germany (FRG; german: Bundesrepublik Deutschland , BRD) between its formation on 23 May 1949 and the German reunification through the accession of East Germany on 3 O ...

, where it was replaced with the , and until 23 June 1948 in

East Germany East Germany, officially the German Democratic Republic (GDR; german: Deutsche Demokratische Republik, , DDR, ), was a country that existed from its creation on 7 October 1949 until its dissolution on 3 October 1990. In these years the state ...

, where it was replaced by the

East German mark The East German mark (german: Mark der DDR ), commonly called the eastern mark (german: Ostmark, links=no ) in West Germany and after reunification), in East Germany only ''Mark'', was the currency of the German Democratic Republic (East Germa ...

. The Reichsmark was subdivided into 100 s (Rpf or ℛ₰). The

Mark Mark may refer to: Currency * Bosnia and Herzegovina convertible mark, the currency of Bosnia and Herzegovina * East German mark, the currency of the German Democratic Republic * Estonian mark, the currency of Estonia between 1918 and 1927 * Fi ...

is an ancient Germanic weight measure, traditionally a half pound, later used for several coins; whereas (''realm'' in English), comes from the official name for the German state from 1871 to 1945, .

History

The Reichsmark was introduced in 1924 as a permanent replacement for the Papiermark. This was necessary due to the

1920s German inflation Nineteen or 19 may refer to: * 19 (number), the natural number following 18 and preceding 20 * one of the years 19 BC, AD 19, 1919, 2019 Films * ''19'' (film), a 2001 Japanese film * ''Nineteen'' (film), a 1987 science fiction film Music ...

which had reached its peak in 1923. The exchange rate between the old Papiermark and the Reichsmark was = 10¹²  ℳ (one trillion in American English and French, one billion in German and other European languages and British English of the time; see long and short scale). To stabilize the economy and to smooth the transition, the Papiermark was not directly replaced by the Reichsmark, but by the

Rentenmark The Rentenmark (; RM) was a currency issued on 15 October 1923 to stop the hyperinflation of 1922 and 1923 in Weimar Germany, after the previously used "paper" Mark had become almost worthless. It was subdivided into 100 ''Rentenpfennig'' and ...

, an interim currency backed by the ''Deutsche Rentenbank'', owning industrial and agricultural real estate assets. The Reichsmark was put on the

gold standard A gold standard is a monetary system in which the standard economic unit of account is based on a fixed quantity of gold. The gold standard was the basis for the international monetary system from the 1870s to the early 1920s, and from the la ...

at the rate previously used by the Goldmark, with the

U.S. dollar The United States dollar ( symbol: $; code: USD; also abbreviated US$ or U.S. Dollar, to distinguish it from other dollar-denominated currencies; referred to as the dollar, U.S. dollar, American dollar, or colloquially buck) is the officia ...

worth .

Expansion outside the Reichsmark

During this period a number of

shell companies A shell corporation is a company or corporation that exists only on paper and has no office and no employees, but may have a bank account or may hold passive investments or be the registered owner of assets, such as intellectual property, or s ...

were created and authorized to issue bonds outside the Reichsmark in order to finance state projects. Nominally exchangeable at a 1:1 rate for Reichsmarks but then discounted by the Reichsbank this created secret monetary expansion without formally renouncing the gold standard of the Reichsmark.

World War II

With the

annexation Annexation (Latin ''ad'', to, and ''nexus'', joining), in international law, is the forcible acquisition of one state's territory by another state, usually following military occupation of the territory. It is generally held to be an illegal act ...

of the Federal State of Austria by Germany in 1938, the Reichsmark replaced the Austrian schilling. During the

Second World War World War II or the Second World War, often abbreviated as WWII or WW2, was a world war that lasted from 1939 to 1945. It involved the vast majority of the world's countries—including all of the great powers—forming two opposin ...

, Germany established fixed exchange rates between the Reichsmark and the currencies of the occupied and allied countries, often set so as to give economic benefits to German soldiers and civilian contractors, who were paid their wages in local currency. The rates were as follows:

Post-war

After the

, the Reichsmark continued to circulate in Germany, but with new banknotes (Allied Occupation Marks) printed in the US and in the Soviet Zone, as well as with coins (without swastikas). Inflation in the final months of the war had reduced the value of the Reichsmark from = $1US to = $1US and a barter economy had emerged due to the rapid depreciation. The Reichsmark was replaced by the Deutsche Mark at a rate of 10:1 (1:1 for cash and current accounts) in June 1948 in the

Trizone The Bizone () or Bizonia was the combination of the American and the British occupation zones on 1 January 1947 during the occupation of Germany after World War II. With the addition of the French occupation zone on 1 August 1948J. Robert Weg ...

and later in the same year by the

East German Mark The East German mark (german: Mark der DDR ), commonly called the eastern mark (german: Ostmark, links=no ) in West Germany and after reunification), in East Germany only ''Mark'', was the currency of the German Democratic Republic (East Germa ...

in the Soviet Occupation Zone (colloquially also "Ostmark", since 1968 officially "Mark der DDR"). The 1948 currency reform under the direction of

Ludwig Erhard Ludwig Wilhelm Erhard (; 4 February 1897 – 5 May 1977) was a German politician affiliated with the Christian Democratic Union (CDU), and chancellor of West Germany from 1963 until 1966. He is known for leading the West German postwar economic ...

is considered the beginning of the West German economic recovery; however, the secret plan to introduce the Deutsche Mark in the

was formulated by economist

Edward A. Tenenbaum Edward A. Tenenbaum (1921–1975) was an American economist, sometimes referred to in Germany as "Vater der Deutschen Mark" (father of the Deutsche Mark). During World War II, he and civilian Egon W. Fleck were the first two non-captive Allied per ...

of the US military government, and was executed abruptly on 21 June 1948. Three days later, the new currency also replaced the Reichsmark in the three Western sectors of

Berlin Berlin ( , ) is the capital and largest city of Germany by both area and population. Its 3.7 million inhabitants make it the European Union's most populous city, according to population within city limits. One of Germany's sixteen constitue ...

. In November 1945, the Reichsmark was superseded by the Allied Military

Schilling Schilling may refer to: * Schilling (unit), an historical unit of measurement * Schilling (coin), the historical European coin * Austrian schilling, the former currency of Austria * A. Schilling & Company, an historical West Coast spice firm acquir ...

in Austria. In 1947 a local currency (the Saar Mark, later replaced with the

Saar Franc The Saar franc was the French franc (german: Franken) used as the official currency of the Saar during the times that the Saar territory was economically split off from Germany, in 1920–1935 as the Territory of the Saar Basin, in 1947–1957 as t ...

) was introduced in the

Saar Saar or SAAR has several meanings: People Given name *Saar Boubacar (born 1951), Senegalese professional football player * Saar Ganor, Israeli archaeologist *Saar Klein (born 1967), American film editor Surname * Ain Saar (born 1968), Est ...

Coins

In 1924, coins were introduced in denominations of 1 ℛ₰, 2 ℛ₰, 5 ℛ₰, 10 ℛ₰, and 50 ℛ₰, and 1 ℳ and 3 ℳ. The 1 ℛ₰ and 2 ℛ₰ were struck in bronze, and depicted a wheat sheaf. The 5 ℛ₰, 10 ℛ₰, and 50 ℛ₰ were struck in aluminium-bronze and depicted wheat stocks crossed into a stylized pattern. The two highest denominations were struck in .500 fine silver and depicted the German eagle standard. In 1925, .500 fine silver and coins were introduced for circulation, along with the first of many commemorative and coins. In 1927, nickel 50 ℛ₰ coins were introduced along with regular-type 5 ℛℳ coins, followed by the coin in 1931. Nazi Germany had a number of mints. Each mint location had its own identifiable letter. It is therefore possible to identify exactly which mint produced what coin by noting the mint mark on the coin. Not all mints were authorized to produce coins every year. The mints were also only authorized to produce a set number of coins with some mints allocated a greater production than others. Some of the coins with particular mint marks are therefore scarcer than others. With the silver and coins, the mint mark is found under the date on the left side of the coin. On the smaller denomination Reichspfennig coins, the mint mark is found on the bottom center of the coin. *A = Berlin *B = Vienna *D = Munich *E = Muldenhütten *F = Stuttgart *G = Karlsruhe *J = Hamburg File:1rpback.jpg, Prewar bronze 1 ℛ₰ (reverse). Made of pure bronze File:1939a5rprev.jpg, Prewar 5 ℛ₰ (reverse). Made of aluminium-bronze File:10rpgoldrev.jpg, Prewar 10 ℛ₰ (reverse). Struck in the same aluminium-bronze as the 5 ℛ₰. File:10rpgoldobv.jpg, Prewar 10 ℛ₰ (obverse) 4 ℛ₰ coins were issued in 1932 as part of a failed attempt by the

Reichskanzler The chancellor of Germany, officially the federal chancellor of the Federal Republic of Germany,; often shortened to ''Bundeskanzler''/''Bundeskanzlerin'', / is the head of the federal government of Germany and the commander in chief of the Ge ...

Heinrich Brüning to reduce prices through use of 4 ℛ₰ pieces instead of 5 ℛ₰ coins. Known as the ''Brüningtaler'' or ''Armer Heinrich'' ("poor Heinrich"), they were demonetized the following year. See Brüningtaler . The quality of the Reichsmark coins decreased more and more towards the end of World War II and misprints happened more frequently. This led to an increase in

counterfeiting of money Counterfeit money is currency produced without the legal sanction of a state or government, usually in a deliberate attempt to imitate that currency and so as to deceive its recipient. Producing or using counterfeit money is a form of fraud or fo ...

. Production of silver 1 ℛℳ coins ended in 1927. In 1933, nickel coins were introduced, and new silver and coins were introduced which were smaller but struck in .625 and .900 fineness so as to maintain the amount of silver. Between 1933 and 1939, a number of commemorative pieces were issued. Production of the coin ceased altogether. In 1935, aluminium 50 ℛ₰ coins were introduced, initially for just the one year. In 1937, nickel 50 ℛ₰ coins were issued and continued to be produced up to 1939, before reverting to aluminum. From 1936 on, all coins except the and the first version (1935–36) of the coin (bearing the image of the late

president President most commonly refers to: *President (corporate title) *President (education), a leader of a college or university *President (government title) President may also refer to: Automobiles * Nissan President, a 1966–2010 Japanese ful ...

Paul von Hindenburg Paul Ludwig Hans Anton von Beneckendorff und von Hindenburg (; abbreviated ; 2 October 1847 – 2 August 1934) was a German field marshal and statesman who led the Imperial German Army during World War I and later became President of Germany fro ...

) bore the

Nazi Nazism ( ; german: Nazismus), the common name in English for National Socialism (german: Nationalsozialismus, ), is the far-right totalitarian political ideology and practices associated with Adolf Hitler and the Nazi Party (NSDAP) in ...

state insignia. The eagle had two standard designs on most coin denominations, a soaring eagle and large

swastika The swastika (卐 or 卍) is an ancient religious and cultural symbol, predominantly in various Eurasian, as well as some African and American cultures, now also widely recognized for its appropriation by the Nazi Party and by neo-Nazis. It ...

depicted on most earlier issues, and a more 'aggressive' eagle with less prominent swastika which became predominant in the 1940s. During World War II, bronze and aluminium-bronze coins were replaced by zinc and aluminium, with the 2 ℛ₰ discontinued for potential of being too easily mistaken for the 5 ℛ₰ when struck in the same metal. The 1 ℛℳ, 2 ℛℳ, and 5 ℛℳ coins were no longer issued, replaced instead by banknotes. Aluminium 50 ℛ₰ coins were reintroduced to replace the nickel versions. This time around they had a longer run, being produced from 1939 to 1944. Lower denominations were produced in zinc from 1940 onwards. Due to their composition, these coins had poor durability and are hard to find in very good condition. The last production of coins bearing the swastika was in 1944 ( 1 ℛ₰, 5 ℛ₰, 10 ℛ₰, and 50 ℛ₰) and 1945 (1 ℛ₰ and 10 ℛ₰ only). File:1rp1943back.jpg, Wartime zinc 1 Reichspfennig (reverse) File:5rp1941aback.jpg, Wartime zinc 5 Reichspfennig (reverse) File:10rpzincrev.jpg, Wartime zinc 10 Reichspfennig (reverse) File:50rp1939eback.jpg, Aluminum 50 Reichspfennig coin (reverse) After the war, the Allies issued coins in relatively small numbers between 1945 and 1948: *1945–46: 1 ℛ₰ and 10 ℛ₰ *1947–48: 5 ℛ₰ and 10 ℛ₰ These coins were issued with designs very similar to those minted in 1944–45, with the eagle changed to the pre-1935 die.

10 Reichspfennig

The zinc 10 Reichspfennig coin was minted by

Nazi Germany Nazi Germany (lit. "National Socialist State"), ' (lit. "Nazi State") for short; also ' (lit. "National Socialist Germany") (officially known as the German Reich from 1933 until 1943, and the Greater German Reich from 1943 to 1945) was ...

between 1940 and 1945 during World War II, replacing the aluminium-bronze version, which had a distinct golden colour. It is worth 1/10 or .10 of a Reichsmark. Made entirely of

zinc Zinc is a chemical element with the symbol Zn and atomic number 30. Zinc is a slightly brittle metal at room temperature and has a shiny-greyish appearance when oxidation is removed. It is the first element in group 12 (IIB) of the periodi ...

, the 10 ℛ₰ is an emergency issue type, similar to the zinc 1 ℛ₰ and 5 ℛ₰, and the

aluminium Aluminium (aluminum in American and Canadian English) is a chemical element with the symbol Al and atomic number 13. Aluminium has a density lower than those of other common metals, at approximately one third that of steel. I ...

50 ℛ₰ coins from the same period.

Mint marks

Mintage

Banknotes

The first Reichsmark banknotes were introduced by the Reichsbank and state banks such as those of

Bavaria Bavaria ( ; ), officially the Free State of Bavaria (german: Freistaat Bayern, link=no ), is a state in the south-east of Germany. With an area of , Bavaria is the largest German state by land area, comprising roughly a fifth of the total lan ...

Saxony Saxony (german: Sachsen ; Upper Saxon: ''Saggsn''; hsb, Sakska), officially the Free State of Saxony (german: Freistaat Sachsen, links=no ; Upper Saxon: ''Freischdaad Saggsn''; hsb, Swobodny stat Sakska, links=no), is a landlocked state of ...

and

Baden Baden (; ) is a historical territory in South Germany, in earlier times on both sides of the Upper Rhine but since the Napoleonic Wars only East of the Rhine. History The margraves of Baden originated from the House of Zähringen. Baden is ...

. The first Reichsbank issue of 1924 came in denominations of , , , , and . This was followed by a second issue in the same denominations, dated between 1929 and 1936. The second issue commemorated persons who made contributions to German agriculture, industry, economy, science, and architecture: issued in 1929 commemorated agronomist Albrecht Thaer; issued in 1929 commemorated engineer, inventor, and industrialist

Werner von Siemens Ernst Werner Siemens (von Siemens from 1888; ; ; 13 December 1816 – 6 December 1892) was a German electrical engineer, inventor and industrialist. Siemens's name has been adopted as the SI unit of electrical conductance, the siemens. He foun ...

; issued in 1933 commemorated Prussian politician and banker

David Hansemann David Justus Ludwig Hansemann (12 July 1790 – 4 August 1864) was a Prussian politician and banker, serving as the Prussian Minister of Finance in 1848. Life Hansemann was born in Finkenwerder, Hamburg, the son of a Protestant minister. Afte ...

; 100 ℛℳ issued in 1935 commemorated chemist and "father of fertilizer industry"

Justus von Liebig Justus Freiherr von Liebig (12 May 1803 – 20 April 1873) was a German scientist who made major contributions to agricultural and biological chemistry, and is considered one of the principal founders of organic chemistry. As a professor at t ...

; issued in 1936 commemorated Prussian architect Karl Friedrich Schinkel. A newer version of note was introduced in 1939, using a design taken from an unissued Austrian S100 banknote type. notes were issued in 1942. Throughout this period, the Rentenbank also issued banknotes denominated in Rentenmark, mostly in RM 1 and RM 2 denominations. In preparation for the occupation of Germany, the United States issued occupation banknotes dated 1944, printed by the Forbes Lithograph Printing Company of Boston. These were printed in similar colours with different sizes for groups of denominations. Notes were issued for  ℳ, 1 ℳ, 5 ℳ, 10 ℳ, 20 ℳ, 50 ℳ, 100 ℳ, and 1,000 ℳ. The issuer was the ''Alliierte Militärbehörde'' ("Allied military authorities") with ''In Umlauf gesetzt in Deutschland'' ("in legal circulation in Germany") printed on the obverse. These notes were convertible to US dollars at a rate of 10:1. Seeing an opportunity to procure foreign hard currency, the

Soviet Union The Soviet Union,. officially the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics. (USSR),. was a transcontinental country that spanned much of Eurasia from 1922 to 1991. A flagship communist state, it was nominally a federal union of fifteen national ...

demanded copies of the engraving plates, ink, and associated equipment in early 1944, and on 14 April 1944

Henry Morgenthau Henry Morgenthau may refer to: * Henry Morgenthau Sr. (1856–1946), United States diplomat * Henry Morgenthau Jr. (1891–1967), United States Secretary of the Treasury * Henry Morgenthau III (1917–2018), author and television producer of ''Screa ...

and

Harry Dexter White Harry Dexter White (October 29, 1892 – August 16, 1948) was a senior U.S. Treasury department official. Working closely with the Secretary of the Treasury Henry Morgenthau Jr., he helped set American financial policy toward the Allies of World W ...

of the U.S. Treasury Department authorized the air transfer of these to the USSR. Using a printing plant in occupied

Leipzig Leipzig ( , ; Upper Saxon: ) is the most populous city in the German state of Saxony. Leipzig's population of 605,407 inhabitants (1.1 million in the larger urban zone) as of 2021 places the city as Germany's eighth most populous, as wel ...

, the Soviet authorities printed large runs of occupation marks to fill Soviet coffers with dollars causing inflation and financial instability. An investigation by the

United States Congress The United States Congress is the legislature of the federal government of the United States. It is bicameral, composed of a lower body, the House of Representatives, and an upper body, the Senate. It meets in the U.S. Capitol in Washing ...

(Occupation Currency Transactions Hearings before the Committee on Appropriations, Armed Services and Banking and Currency,

U.S. Senate The United States Senate is the upper chamber of the United States Congress, with the House of Representatives being the lower chamber. Together they compose the national bicameral legislature of the United States. The composition and powe ...

, 1947) found that about $380,000,000 "more currency than there were appropriations for" had been circulated. In 1947

Rhineland-Palatinate Rhineland-Palatinate ( , ; german: link=no, Rheinland-Pfalz ; lb, Rheinland-Pfalz ; pfl, Rhoilond-Palz) is a western state of Germany. It covers and has about 4.05 million residents. It is the ninth largest and sixth most populous of the ...

issued 5₰ and 10₰ notes with ''Geldschein'' on them. File:20 Reichsmark 1924 Deutsche Reichsbank.png, , 1924 File:10 Reichsmark, Berlin 22. Januar 1929.JPG, , 1929 File:20 Reichsmark, Berlin 22. Januar 1929.JPG, , 1929 File:100 Reichsmark note Issued 24 June 1935.jpg, , 1935

Occupation Reichsmark

Coins and banknotes for circulation in the occupied territories during the war were issued by the ''Reichskreditkassen''. Holed, zinc coins in 5 ℛ₰ and 10 ℛ₰ denominations were struck in 1940 and 1941. Banknotes were issued between 1939 and 1945 in denominations of 50 ℛ₰, , , , , and . These served as legal tender alongside the currency of the occupied countries. The coins were originally planned in great numbers of 100 million and 250 million each of the 5 ℛ₰ and 10 ℛ₰ coins respectively. The first embossing order, which was issued in April 1940, was about 40 million × 5 ℛ₰ and 100 million × 10 ℛ₰. The total amount was divided between each of the seven German mints after the embossing key of 1939. The contract was stopped in August 1940 as the Wehrmacht, which had requested the coins for Belgium and France, had no more need of it. When the embossing stopped, only Berlin ("A") and Munich ("D") produced significant quantities, but they still came to only a small extent of original production plans. The majority were melted down due to the limited supply of metal and thus, most mint marks are now quite rare (except for 1940 5 A and D, and 1940 10 A). File:Nazi Coins 10 Reichskreditkassen-638x326.jpg, Currency of the occupied countries (1940 10 J) File:5 Reichskreditkassen 1940 B.jpg, Currency of the occupied countries (1940 5 B) File:50 Reichspfennig 1938-1945.png, 50 ℛ₰, 1938–1945 File:1 Reichsmark 1938-1945.png, , 1938–1945 File:2 Reichsmark 1938-1945.png, , 1938–1945 File:5 Reichsmark 1938-1945.png, , 1938–1945 File:20 Reichsmark 1938-1945.png, , 1938–1945 File:50 Reichsmark 1938-1945.png, , 1938–1945 KF-Lagergeld-10Reichspfennig

Concentration camp and POW Reichsmark currency

Various special issues of Reichsmark currency were issued for use in

concentration In chemistry, concentration is the abundance of a constituent divided by the total volume of a mixture. Several types of mathematical description can be distinguished: '' mass concentration'', ''molar concentration'', ''number concentration'', an ...

and

prisoner of war A prisoner of war (POW) is a person who is held captive by a belligerent power during or immediately after an armed conflict. The earliest recorded usage of the phrase "prisoner of war" dates back to 1610. Belligerents hold prisoners of wa ...

(POW) camps. None were legal tender in Germany itself. From 1942 to 1943 tokens were struck for use within the

Łódź Ghetto The Łódź Ghetto or Litzmannstadt Ghetto (after the Nazi German name for Łódź) was a Nazi ghetto established by the German authorities for Polish Jews and Roma following the Invasion of Poland. It was the second-largest ghetto in all of Ge ...

Military Reichsmark currency

Special issues of Reichsmark currency were issued for use by the German Armed Forces from 1942 to 1944. The first issue was denominated in 1 ℛ₰, 5 ℛ₰, 10 ℛ₰, and 50 ℛ₰ and , but was valued at 1 military Reichspfennig = 10 civilian Reichspfennig. This series was printed on only one side. The second issue notes of , , , and were equal in value to the ordinary German Reichsmark and were printed on both sides. The 5 Mark note pictured, front and back, is Allied military currency ("AMC") printed at Forbes Lithograph Manufacturing Company in Boston for occupied Germany. There were different AMCs for each liberated area of Europe.

References

* *