The apapane (''Himatione sanguinea,'' pronounced /ˌ ɑ pɑˈpɑ neɪ/, ''ah-pah-PAH-ney'') is a small, crimson species of

Hawaiian honeycreeper Hawaiian honeycreepers are a group of small, passerine birds endemic to Hawaii. They are closely related to the rosefinches in the genus ''Carpodacus'', but many species have evolved features unlike those present in any other finch. Their great ...

endemic Endemism is the state of a species being found in a single defined geographic location, such as an island, state, nation, country or other defined zone; organisms that are indigenous to a place are not endemic to it if they are also found else ...

to the Hawaiian Islands. They are the most abundant and widely distributed honeycreeper and are found on the islands of

Hawaii Hawaii ( ; haw, Hawaii or ) is a state in the Western United States, located in the Pacific Ocean about from the U.S. mainland. It is the only U.S. state outside North America, the only state that is an archipelago, and the only state ...

, Maui, Lānai, Kauai, Molokai and Oahu. Apapane commonly forage in the canopies of ''ōhia'' (''

Metrosideros polymorpha ''Metrosideros polymorpha'', the ''ōhia lehua'', is a species of flowering evergreen tree in the myrtle family, Myrtaceae, that is endemic to the six largest islands of Hawaii. It is a highly variable tree, being tall in favorable situations ...

'') trees,

drinking Drinking is the act of ingesting water or other liquids into the body through the mouth, proboscis, or elsewhere. Humans drink by swallowing, completed by peristalsis in the esophagus. The physiological processes of drinking vary widely am ...

nectar from the

flower A flower, sometimes known as a bloom or blossom, is the reproductive structure found in flowering plants (plants of the division Angiospermae). The biological function of a flower is to facilitate reproduction, usually by providing a mechani ...

s and serving as important

pollinators A pollinator is an animal that moves pollen from the male anther of a flower to the female stigma of a flower. This helps to bring about fertilization of the ovules in the flower by the male gametes from the pollen grains. Insects are the maj ...

. Hawaiians primarily used red feathers from

ʻiʻiwi The iiwi (''Drepanis coccinea'', pronounced , ''ee-EE-vee'') or scarlet honeycreeper is a species of Hawaiian honeycreeper. The iiwi is a highly recognizable symbol of Hawaii. The iiwi is the third most common native land bird in the Hawaiian Is ...

, but also some from ʻapapane, to adorn the ''ahuula'' ( capes), ''

mahiole Hawaiian feather helmets, known as ''mahiole'' in the Hawaiian language, were worn with feather cloaks (ʻahu ʻula). These were symbols of the highest rank reserved for the men of the ''alii'', the chiefly class of Hawaii. There are examples o ...

'' (helmets), and '' nā lei hulu'' (feather leis) of '' alii'' (Hawaiian

nobility Nobility is a social class found in many societies that have an aristocracy. It is normally ranked immediately below royalty. Nobility has often been an estate of the realm with many exclusive functions and characteristics. The character ...

Description

Apapane are small at when fully grown. They are

sexually dimorphic Sexual dimorphism is the condition where the sexes of the same animal and/or plant species exhibit different morphological characteristics, particularly characteristics not directly involved in reproduction. The condition occurs in most ani ...

in size: male apapane have a mass of , while females average . Adult apapane are overall bright crimson, with distinct white undertail-coverts and lower abdomen feathers. They have black primaries and retricies. Juvenile apapane are yellow-brown and gray, with the same white plumage as adults, and molt into crimson plumage over the course of two years. 'Apapane are often seen in a tail-up posture, showing off their white feathers.

Song

'Apapane are active singers, including in flight. There is considerable variation in their calls and songs, but phrases are often repeated. They are known to sing at a perch for 10-30 second intervals, and their song may include repeated squeaks, whistles, rasps, melodic trills, and clicking sounds.

Diet

Apapane have tubular, brush-tipped tongues and decurved bills adapted for nectar feeding. They frequent ''ōhia'' (''

'') trees, feeding on the flowers in conspecific and mixed-species flocks, and range widely to follow''ōhia'' flowering phenology. Apapane also glean insects and spiders from leaves and small twigs in the canopy; they do not forage on the ground. In 1953, a study of 63 'apapane found that 87% of them had butterflies and moths ( Lepidoptera) in their stomachs; 75% had eaten hoppers (

Homoptera Homoptera is a suborder of order Hemiptera that is considered by some taxonomists to be paraphyletic, and therefore deprecated (obsolete). It was therefore split into the suborders Sternorrhyncha, Auchenorrhyncha, and Coleorrhyncha. The earlier w ...

); 60% ate lacewing larvae ( Neuroptera); and 43% had recently consumed spiders (

Arachnid Arachnida () is a class of joint-legged invertebrate animals (arthropods), in the subphylum Chelicerata. Arachnida includes, among others, spiders, scorpions, ticks, mites, pseudoscorpions, harvestmen, camel spiders, whip spiders and vinegar ...

a). Other native trees that 'apapane use for foraging are māmane ('' Sophora chrysophylla),'' koa (''

Acacia koa ''Acacia koa'' or commonly known as koa is a species of flowering tree in the family Fabaceae. It is endemic to the Hawaiian Islands, where it is the second most common tree. The highest populations are on Hawaii, Maui and Oahu. Name The name ...

''), naio (''

Myoporum sandwicense ''Myoporum sandwicense'', commonly known as ''naio'', bastard sandalwood or false sandalwood is a species of flowering plant in the figwort family, Scrophulariaceae. It is a tree or shrub highly variable in its form, the size and shape of its le ...

)'', kōlea ('' Myrsine lessertiana)'', alani ( ''Melicope'' sp.), kanawao (''

Broussaisia arguta ''Broussaisia arguta'', the kanawao, is a species of perennial flowering plant in the ''Hydrangea'' family, Hydrangeaceae, that is endemic to Hawaii. It is the only species in the monotypic genus ''Broussaisia''. Kanawao is a widespread speci ...

''), koki'o ke'oke'o (
Hibiscus arnottianus
'), and 'ōlapa ('' Cheirodendron trigynum'').

Breeding

The breeding season starts in Oct/Nov and peaks February through June. Apapane nests are often on the terminal branch of ''ōhia'' (''

''); nests have been found in tree cavities and lava tubes as well as in the top of ''koa'' (''

''), ''kāwau'' (''

Ilex anomala ''Ilex anomala'', commonly known as Hawai'i holly, kāwau or aiea, is a species of holly that is endemic to Hawaii. It inhabits mixed mesic and wet forests at elevations of on all main islands. References External links Trees of Hawai ...

'') and ''hapuu'' (''

Cibotium ''Cibotium'' (from Greek , ''kibṓtion'', "little chest" or "box"), also known as manfern, is a genus of 11 species of tropical tree ferns. It is the only genus in family Cibotiaceae in the Pteridophyte Phylogeny Group classification of 2016 ( ...

tree ferns The tree ferns are arborescent (tree-like) ferns that grow with a trunk elevating the fronds above ground level, making them trees. Many extant tree ferns are members of the order Cyatheales, to which belong the families Cyatheaceae (scaly tre ...

). The female lays 1-4 eggs and incubates for 13 days. Interestingly, during incubation the male does not visit the nest but will feed the female when she is away from the nest. While the female does not sing or call from the nest, she locates her singing male and begs for food. Once the eggs hatch, nestlings are fed by both parents. Young 'apapane are dependent on their parents for less than 4 months.

Habitat and distribution

Apapane are found in native mesic and wet forests dominated by ''ōhia'' (''

'') and ''koa'' (''

'') trees. Their range is extensive and their densities change as they undergo frequent temporal and seasonal migrations in search of flowering ''ōhia.'' They are detected at low elevations on most islands, however, most apapane are found at elevations above , where there are fewer

mosquito Mosquitoes (or mosquitos) are members of a group of almost 3,600 species of small flies within the family Culicidae (from the Latin ''culex'' meaning " gnat"). The word "mosquito" (formed by ''mosca'' and diminutive ''-ito'') is Spanish for "li ...

es and therefore less disease pressure (See Threats and Conservation Section). 'Apapane live on the islands of

(~86% of the population: 1,080,000 ± 25,000 est. 1986), Maui (228,480 ± 19,855 est. 2017 for East Maui and 20,521 ± 1,687 est. 2009 for West Maui ), Kauai (98,506 est. 2012), Molokai (38,643 ± 2,360 est. 1979),

Oahu Oahu () ( Hawaiian: ''Oʻahu'' ()), also known as "The Gathering Place", is the third-largest of the Hawaiian Islands. It is home to roughly one million people—over two-thirds of the population of the U.S. state of Hawaii. The island of O� ...

(24,000 ± 2,600 est. 1991), and Lānai (540 ± 213 est. 1979). Their populations are stable and are considered a species of least concern by IUCN.

Threats and conservation

‘Apapane are the most abundant honeycreeper species with the largest range. The total population has been estimated at more than 1.5 million individuals with the largest populations on Hawaii and Maui Islands. The main threats for 'apapane are habitat loss, disease and the introduction of alien species. ‘Apapane can be found on all of the main Hawaiian Islands except Niihau and Kaho’olawe, where it is primarily found at high elevations where rates of avian malaria are comparatively low. The species is also threatened by non-native mammalian predators like Small Indian Mongooses (Herpestes javanicus), Rats (Rattus spp.), an
feral cats
(Felis catus). The species has the highest reported prevalence of

avian malaria Avian malaria is a parasitic disease of birds, caused by parasite species belonging to the genera '' Plasmodium'' and '' Hemoproteus'' (phylum Apicomplexa, class Haemosporidia, family Plasmoiidae). The disease is transmitted by a dipteran vecto ...

('' Plasmodium relictum''), but their mortality is lower than most other honeycreeper species. Their high infection prevalence may be the result of their seasonal migrations to lower elevation forests putting individuals in contact with mosquitoes, particularly the introduced southern house mosquito (

Culex quinquefasciatus ''Culex'' is a genus of mosquitoes, several species of which serve as vectors of one or more important diseases of birds, humans, and other animals. The diseases they vector include arbovirus infections such as West Nile virus, Japanese encep ...

) and primary vector of avian malaria, which are less common at higher elevations. 'Apapane are therefore suspected to be a significant reservoir for malaria transmission. Avian malaria is a

blood Blood is a body fluid in the circulatory system of humans and other vertebrates that delivers necessary substances such as nutrients and oxygen to the cells, and transports metabolic waste products away from those same cells. Blood in the cir ...

parasite Parasitism is a close relationship between species, where one organism, the parasite, lives on or inside another organism, the host, causing it some harm, and is adapted structurally to this way of life. The entomologist E. O. Wilson has ...

, and host death is usually cause by

anemia Anemia or anaemia (British English) is a blood disorder in which the blood has a reduced ability to carry oxygen due to a lower than normal number of red blood cells, or a reduction in the amount of hemoglobin. When anemia comes on slowly, t ...

, the loss of

red blood cell Red blood cells (RBCs), also referred to as red cells, red blood corpuscles (in humans or other animals not having nucleus in red blood cells), haematids, erythroid cells or erythrocytes (from Greek ''erythros'' for "red" and ''kytos'' for "holl ...

s. Avian pox ('' Avipoxvirus spp.''), which causes

wart Warts are typically small, rough, hard growths that are similar in color to the rest of the skin. They typically do not result in other symptoms, except when on the bottom of the feet, where they may be painful. While they usually occur on the ...

-like lesions to form around a bird's eyes, beak, legs, or feet, may also be lethal to ʻapapane if the lesions inhibit feeding, seeing, or perching. Like avian malaria, avian pox is transmitted by mosquitoes and birds infected with one are commonly infected with the other. The synergistic effects of

co-infection Coinfection is the simultaneous infection of a host by multiple pathogen species. In virology, coinfection includes simultaneous infection of a single cell by two or more virus particles. An example is the coinfection of liver cells with hepatiti ...

may have additional impacts on infected 'apapane's survival. It is believed that at least a small portion of the population is becoming resistant to malaria, as some pairs have been seen breeding in mid-elevation forests, ~300m, where the rate of malaria transmission is high. Today there are no direct actions being taken concerning this species, however, anything that is being done to help rarer species of birds throughout Hawaii will also help the apapane. Organizations throughout the islands have established nature reserves to protect native habitat. Fencing off sections of land to keep out feral ungulates, especially pigs, goats and axis deer enables native plants to recover from

overgrazing Overgrazing occurs when plants are exposed to intensive grazing for extended periods of time, or without sufficient recovery periods. It can be caused by either livestock in poorly managed agricultural applications, game reserves, or nature res ...

and ungulate damage and helps restore native bird habitat. In recent years another threat has put native bird habitat at risk. Conservation groups are diligently working to reduce the risk of spreading a disease called Rapid ʻŌhiʻa Death (ROD). This disease along with ōhia dieback and ōhia rust could lead to a rapid decline in ōhia forests, an important nectar source for apapane.

References

External links

Images
- Monte M. Taylor
Videos, photos and sounds
- Internet Bird Collection {{DEFAULTSORT:Apapane Hawaiian honeycreepers Himatione Endemic birds of Hawaii Least concern biota of Oceania Least concern biota of the United States Birds described in 1788 Taxa named by Johann Friedrich Gmelin Articles containing video clips Taxonomy articles created by Polbot