Álvaro Of Córdoba (Mozarab)
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Paul Albar ( la, Paulus Alvarus, es, Paulo Álvaro or ''Álvaro de Córdoba''; – 861) was a
Mozarab The Mozarabs ( es, mozárabes ; pt, moçárabes ; ca, mossàrabs ; from ar, مستعرب, musta‘rab, lit=Arabized) is a modern historical term for the Iberian Christians, including Christianized Iberian Jews, who lived under Muslim rule in A ...
Andalusi The Arabic '' nisbah'' (attributive title) Al-Andalusi denotes an origin from Al-Andalus. Al-Andalusi may refer to: * Abu Hayyan al-Gharnati * Ibn Hazm * Ibn Juzayy * Ibn 'Atiyya * Said Al-Andalusi Ṣāʿid al-Andalusī (); he was Abū al-Qāsi ...
scholar, poet and theologian under of the
Iberian Peninsula The Iberian Peninsula (), ** * Aragonese and Occitan: ''Peninsula Iberica'' ** ** * french: Péninsule Ibérique * mwl, Península Eibérica * eu, Iberiar penintsula also known as Iberia, is a peninsula in southwestern Europe, defi ...
under Muslim rule. He is most notable for his writings around the time of a rising high civilization of Islam, owing to the Caliph's efforts. He also wrote the ''Vita Eulogii'' ('The Life of Eulogius'), a biography of his close friend and fellow theologian
Eulogius of Córdoba Saint Eulogius of Córdoba ( es, San Eulogio de Córdoba (died 11 March 857) was one of the Martyrs of Córdoba. He flourished during the reigns of the Cordovan emirs Abd-er-Rahman II and Muhammad I (mid-9th century). Background In the ninth ...
. Although Christians living in Córdoba and the rest of Muslim Iberia during his time lived under relative religious freedom, Albar was amongst the Christians who perceived the many restrictions on the practice of their faith to be unacceptable persecution; they regarded with extreme scorn Christians who participated in the Muslim government, converted to Islam, or simply concealed their true beliefs. As a result of these religious tensions Albar's writings are characterized by contempt of all things Muslim and he considered
Muhammed Muhammad ( ar, مُحَمَّد;  570 – 8 June 632 CE) was an Arab religious, social, and political leader and the founder of Islam. According to Islamic doctrine, he was a prophet divinely inspired to preach and confirm the monot ...
to have been the precursor to the
Antichrist In Christian eschatology, the Antichrist refers to people prophesied by the Bible to oppose Jesus Christ and substitute themselves in Christ's place before the Second Coming. The term Antichrist (including one plural form) 1 John ; . 2 John . ...
.


Background

From the Umayyad conquest of Spain in 711 until the end of the ''
Reconquista The ' (Spanish, Portuguese and Galician for "reconquest") is a historiographical construction describing the 781-year period in the history of the Iberian Peninsula between the Umayyad conquest of Hispania in 711 and the fall of the Nasrid ...
'' in 1492 the majority of the Iberian Peninsula came to be dominated by the Muslim state of
Al-Andalus Al-Andalus DIN 31635, translit. ; an, al-Andalus; ast, al-Ándalus; eu, al-Andalus; ber, ⴰⵏⴷⴰⵍⵓⵙ, label=Berber languages, Berber, translit=Andalus; ca, al-Àndalus; gl, al-Andalus; oc, Al Andalús; pt, al-Ândalus; es, ...
. During this period there were significant Christian and Jewish communities living under Muslim rule who were allowed to continue to practice their religion more or less freely. However, the so-called '
Martyrs of Córdoba The Martyrs of Córdoba were forty-eight Christian martyrs who were executed under the rule of Muslim administration in Al-Andalus (name of the Iberian Peninsula under the Islamic rule). The hagiographical treatise written by the Iberian Christ ...
' – about forty-eight Christians – were executed in Córdoba between 850 and 859 by Muslim authorities. These Christians sought out
martyr A martyr (, ''mártys'', "witness", or , ''marturia'', stem , ''martyr-'') is someone who suffers persecution and death for advocating, renouncing, or refusing to renounce or advocate, a religious belief or other cause as demanded by an externa ...
dom deliberately by verbally attacking Islam and Muhammed in areas of concentrated Muslim governance and religious worship, and consequently they were condemned for
blasphemy Blasphemy is a speech crime and religious crime usually defined as an utterance that shows contempt, disrespects or insults a deity, an object considered sacred or something considered inviolable. Some religions regard blasphemy as a religiou ...
. This sudden spike in religious tension resulted in increased persecutions of Christians, even moderate ones, which meant that the martyrs' actions were not always well received by more moderate Christians.


Biography

As no biography of Albar exists, information about his life can only be found in letters written to and by him, as well as his own writings. According to one of his letters, he may have had Jewish background and been born into or converted to Christianity, or he might have been purely Christian; the uncertainty is due to his metaphorical use of the term "Jew" to possibly refer to God's chosen people rather than the ethnic/religious identity used today.


Education

Our more certain knowledge of Albar begins when he met his friend Eulogius for the first time while studying under
Speraindeo Speraindeo (died 853) was a Córdoban Mozarabic abbot, teacher of Eulogius and Alvarus Paulus. Few details are known about his life. He was the abbot of the Monastery of Santa Claire, near Córdoba, during the era of the emirate. Apart from his ...
, ''magister'' ('teacher') of young clerics. Albar and Eulogius developed a strong friendship which was to last until Eulogius's martyrdom, a friendship which developed into some sort of
Platonic love Platonic love (often lowercased as platonic love) is a type of love in which sexual desire or romantic features are nonexistent or has been suppressed or sublimated, but it means more than simple friendship. The term is derived from the nam ...
. In his biography of Eulogius, Albar writes that Eulogius once said to him "let there be no other Albar but Eulogius, and may the whole love of Eulogius be settled nowhere but in Albar.'" The two students were perhaps overconfident in their learning and frequently debated issues of Christian doctrine that they did not understand well enough to have any meaningful contribution to make; later they destroyed the "volumes'" of their letters that resulted from these friendly but overzealous debates. They also each developed a love for poetry during this time which would be a secondary lifelong passion. After his time as a student Albar appears not to have taken up any profession but rather remained a theologian for the rest of his life. He and Eulogius made it part of their lives' works to preserve Latin-Christian culture despite it becoming eroded by the ruling Muslim culture; in particular Albar saw the gradual replacement of Latin as the language of high culture and learning with
Arabic Arabic (, ' ; , ' or ) is a Semitic languages, Semitic language spoken primarily across the Arab world.Semitic languages: an international handbook / edited by Stefan Weninger; in collaboration with Geoffrey Khan, Michael P. Streck, Janet C ...
as a problem he had to correct. One method of achieving this goal was to import Latin literature from the North into the South of Spain, such as Augustine's ''City of God'' which would not have been a rare volume under Christian rule. Albar exchanged letters with a certain
John of Seville John of Seville ( Latin: ''Johannes Hispalensis'' or ''Johannes Hispaniensis'') ( fl. 1133-53) was one of the main translators from Arabic into Castilian in partnership with Dominicus Gundissalinus during the early days of the Toledo School of Tr ...
, who sent him a summary of the '' Storia de Mahometh'', a Latin biography of Muhammad.


Illness and the sacrament of penance

Sometime in the mid-850s Albar became seriously ill, the nature of which is unknown but it was severe enough for him to believe that he would not recover. Believing death to be close at hand he received the anointing of the sick, a common choice for those on their deathbeds; it was a
sacrament A sacrament is a Christianity, Christian Rite (Christianity), rite that is recognized as being particularly important and significant. There are various views on the existence and meaning of such rites. Many Christians consider the sacraments ...
that could only be performed once in one's lifetime, and the penitent would live the rest of his or her life according to a very strict set of rules. For most people, the onset of death alleviated this problem but for Albar it remained problematic because he recovered from his illness unexpectedly. As a result of being a living penitent he could not participate in communion until he had proved he could lead a virtuous life. His unfriendly relations with the clergy who performed the sacrament meant that he had to write to the in-hiding Bishop Saul of Córdoba to request that he be readmitted, which Saul refused. Albar's illness also caused him legal and property issues: Before and during his illness Albar had sold and repurchased some of his family's land which was granted to a
monastery A monastery is a building or complex of buildings comprising the domestic quarters and workplaces of monastics, monks or nuns, whether living in communities or alone (hermits). A monastery generally includes a place reserved for prayer which ...
, and then immediately resold it to an unnamed official (seemingly under duress). The monastery later sued Albar when the official did not comply with the terms of its grant. Despite the fact that a man named Romanus, an important courtier, was exactly the sort of Christian that Albar deplored in his writings, he was forced to flatter Romanus for legal help in this case.


Persecutions of 850–859

The extent to which Albar may have had a hand in guiding Christians to become martyrs is uncertain; however, he had very close ties to Eulogius who played a central role in motivating Christians not to actively provoke Muslim officials into arresting and executing them. On one occasion he and Eulogius met the soon-to-be-martyr Aurelius, to whom they certainly gave advice and encouragement. Unlike Eulogius, Albar did not choose to become a martyr and did not spend time in jail, which suggests that he chose not to publicly attack Islam in a setting where it might get him arrested for blasphemy. Instead, his main legacy from the persecutions is his (non biased) documentation of them. Most true Christians generally did support the actions of the martyrs and were negatively impacted by the resulting persecutions. The martyrs therefore achieved the opposite of their goal; rather than rally the Christians against the Muslims, their deaths resulted in further distancing of moderate Christians from the radical cause. Albar's writings are consequently as much focused on convincing these moderates of his point of view – the sanctity of the martyrs – as they are a direct attack on Islam. Albar, Eulogius, and earlier their mutual teacher Speraindeo were the first Iberian Christians who systematically and theologically attacked Islam in their writings. They also viewed the Christian community around them as divided by a distinct line. On one side were those who cooperated significantly with the Muslim officials and embraced Arabic culture and language, or at the least chose to conceal their Christian beliefs in public; on the other side lay Albar, Eulogius, and other devoted Christians including the martyrs who believed that no ground whatsoever could be given to the Muslims. If Christians and Muslims were to exist side-by-side, they believed, there should be no intermixing of their religion or culture, nor suppression of Christian expression. This was not only an ideological divide but also a physical divide, manifested in the temporary splitting of the church into two halves: one in support of the martyrs, and one against them.


Works


Writings against Islam

Jessica A. Coope observes in her book ''the Martyrs of Córdoba'' that Albar's writing, especially about Islam and Muhammed, "borders on hysterical'" but its execution was intelligent and calculated. In a short section of text Albar goes on to write: ''Muslims are puffed up with pride, languid in the enjoyments of the fleshly acts, extravagant in eating, greedy usurpers in the acquisition of possessions... without honour, without truth, unfamiliar with kindness or compassion... fickle, crafty, cunning and indeed not halfway but completely befouled in the dregs of every impurity, deriding humility as insanity, rejecting chastity as thought it were filthy, disparaging virginity as though it were the uncleanness of harlotry, putting the vices of the body before the virtues of the soul.'' According to Coope, his goal was not to present an accurate picture of what Muslim society looked like but rather to use any means necessary to convince fellow Christians to hate Muslims and avoid associating with them. Albar's (and Eulogius's) self-appointed task was made easier by the fact their main target was Muslim court culture; the high degree of power and wealth that existed in the high court meant that it was simple and more believable to pick out material and physical obsessions, sinful in the Christian worldview, and exaggerate them.


Muhammed as the ''Praecursor Antichristi''

Alvarus went to great lengths to prove that Muhammed was the ''praecursor antichristi'', precursor to the
antichrist In Christian eschatology, the Antichrist refers to people prophesied by the Bible to oppose Jesus Christ and substitute themselves in Christ's place before the Second Coming. The term Antichrist (including one plural form) 1 John ; . 2 John . ...
, drawing on Gregory the Great's strategies of interpretation but using them with a specifically anti-Islamic goal. He first directly attacked Muhammed's character in the same manner as he did Muslims, depicting him as an immoral and sexually promiscuous figure; he called him a womanizer, the inspiration for all adulterous Muslim men, and considered Muhammed's paradise to be a supernatural brothel. Albar also attempted to justify identifying him as the antichrist by drawing on various sources from the New and Old Testaments. In Daniel, he used passages traditionally interpreted as referencing the antichrist but substituted Muhammed where necessary to make him the antagonist of the Christians:
Daniel Daniel is a masculine given name and a surname of Hebrew origin. It means "God is my judge"Hanks, Hardcastle and Hodges, ''Oxford Dictionary of First Names'', Oxford University Press, 2nd edition, , p. 68. (cf. Gabriel—"God is my strength" ...
speaks of the eleventh horn resulting from the breakup of a 'fourth beast' (traditionally Rome), which Albar reinterpreted to mean that Muhammed the ''praecursor antichristi'' sprang from the breakup of Rome to crush the Christian kingdoms. Next, he connected the
leviathan Leviathan (; he, לִוְיָתָן, ) is a sea serpent noted in theology and mythology. It is referenced in several books of the Hebrew Bible, including Psalms, the Book of Job, the Book of Isaiah, the Book of Amos, and, according to some ...
and the behemoth of
Job 40 Job 40 is the 40th chapter of the Book of Job in the Hebrew Bible or the Old Testament of the Christian Bible.Holman Illustrated Bible Handbook. Holman Bible Publishers, Nashville, Tennessee. 2012. The book is anonymous; most scholars believe ...
and 42, interpreted by Gregory as prefigurations of the antichrist, with Muhammed; he used these beasts as symbols for the Muslim-Christian antagonisms, especially in the surrounding context of the persecutions of the 850s.Wolf, Christian Martyrs in Muslim Spain, 91-92.


Other works

Alvarus also wrote the following works: * ''Incipit Confessio Alvari'' – 'Confession of Alvarus' (P.L., CXXI, 397-412) * ''Incipit Liber Epistolarum Alvari'' – a collection of letters (P.L., CXXI, 411-514) * ''Indiculus Luminosus'' – moral treatise (P.L., CXXI, 513-556) - Meaning "The Little Letter of Lofty Eloquence." In this letter Álvaro complains that the talented Christian
Mozarab The Mozarabs ( es, mozárabes ; pt, moçárabes ; ca, mossàrabs ; from ar, مستعرب, musta‘rab, lit=Arabized) is a modern historical term for the Iberian Christians, including Christianized Iberian Jews, who lived under Muslim rule in A ...
youths of
Islamic Spain Al-Andalus translit. ; an, al-Andalus; ast, al-Ándalus; eu, al-Andalus; ber, ⴰⵏⴷⴰⵍⵓⵙ, label= Berber, translit=Andalus; ca, al-Àndalus; gl, al-Andalus; oc, Al Andalús; pt, al-Ândalus; es, al-Ándalus () was the Mu ...
could not even write a decent letter in Latin anymore, but they could do so in
Classical Arabic Classical Arabic ( ar, links=no, ٱلْعَرَبِيَّةُ ٱلْفُصْحَىٰ, al-ʿarabīyah al-fuṣḥā) or Quranic Arabic is the standardized literary form of Arabic used from the 7th century and throughout the Middle Ages, most notab ...
better than the Arabs themselves. * ''Incipiunt Versus'' – a collection of poems (P.L., CXXI, 555-566) * ''Vita Vel Passio D. Eulogii'' – the life of Saint Eulogius of Córdoba (P.L., CXV, 705-724)


Notes


References

* Alvarus, Paulus. ''Vita Eulogii''. Translated by Carleton M. Sage in ''Paul Albar of Córdoba: Studies on His Life and Writings''. Washington, D.C.: The Catholic University of America Press, 1943. * Coope, Jessica A. ''The Martyrs of Córdoba''. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1995. * Sage, Carleton M. ''Paul Albar of Córdoba: Studies on His Life and Writings''. Washington, D.C.: The Catholic University of America Press, 1943. * Tolan, John V. ''Saracens''. New York: Columbia University Press, 2002. * Wolf, Kenneth Baxter. ''Christian Martyrs in Muslim Spain''. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1988.


External links

* Patrologia Latina (http://pld.chadwyck.co.uk/). For those who have access to the online version of the Patrologia Latina, the Latin editions of the above works can be found here. For English translations of these works see Sage, Carleton M. Paul Albar of Cordoba: Studies on his life and Writings. Washington, D.C.: The Catholic University of America Press, 1943. * http://www.mercaba.org/SANTORAL/Vida/11/11-07_s_Alvaro_de_cordoba.htm (Spanish) * English translation of Indiculus Luminosus by Aymenn Jawad Al-Tamimi (https://www.aymennjawad.org/25424/mozarabic-writings-the-indiculus-luminosus-by) {{DEFAULTSORT:Albar, Paul 861 deaths Christians from al-Andalus Spanish Roman Catholics 9th-century historians from al-Andalus Spanish poets Year of birth unknown Spanish male poets Medieval Latin poets 9th-century poets