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Unbundled Access
Unbundled access is an often practiced form of regulation during liberalization, where new entrants of the market (challengers) are offered access to facilities of the incumbent that are hard to duplicate (e.g. for technical or business case reasons). Its applications are mostly found in network-oriented industries (like telecommunication, mail and energy) and often concerns the last mile. Unbundled access is similar to Bit-stream access, where the incumbent provider gives competitive access not to the actual copper wire of the local loop, but to a high-speed ADSL data connection. Both setups ensure competition for the backhaul but leave "last mile" infrastructure the responsibility of the incumbent carrier. Telecommunications United States In the United States, the Telecommunications Act of 1996 added a number of provisions designed to increase competition. Incumbent local exchange carriers (ILEC), under this law, are required to interconnect with competing telecommunications ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Regulation
Regulation is the management of complex systems according to a set of rules and trends. In systems theory, these types of rules exist in various fields of biology and society, but the term has slightly different meanings according to context. For example: * in biology, gene regulation and metabolic regulation allow living organisms to adapt to their environment and maintain homeostasis; * in government, typically regulation means stipulations of the delegated legislation which is drafted by subject-matter experts to enforce primary legislation; * in business, industry self-regulation occurs through self-regulatory organizations and trade associations which allow industries to set and enforce rules with less government involvement; and, * in psychology, self-regulation theory is the study of how individuals regulate their thoughts and behaviors to reach goals. Social Regulation in the social, political, psychological, and economic domains can take many forms: legal restriction ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Cable Television
Cable television is a system of delivering television programming to consumers via radio frequency (RF) signals transmitted through coaxial cables, or in more recent systems, light pulses through fibre-optic cables. This contrasts with broadcast television (also known as terrestrial television), in which the television signal is transmitted over-the-air by radio waves and received by a television antenna attached to the television; or satellite television, in which the television signal is transmitted over-the-air by radio waves from a communications satellite orbiting the Earth, and received by a satellite dish antenna on the roof. FM radio programming, high-speed Internet, telephone services, and similar non-television services may also be provided through these cables. Analog television was standard in the 20th century, but since the 2000s, cable systems have been upgraded to digital cable operation. A "cable channel" (sometimes known as a "cable network") is a tele ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Economic Liberalization
Economic liberalization (or economic liberalisation) is the lessening of government regulations and restrictions in an economy in exchange for greater participation by private entities. In politics, the doctrine is associated with classical liberalism and neoliberalism. Liberalization in short is "the removal of controls" to encourage economic development. Many countries have pursued and followed the path of economic liberalization in the 1980s, 1990s and in the 21st century, with the stated goal of maintaining or increasing their competitiveness as business environments. Liberalization policies may or often include the partial or complete privatization of government institutions and State ownership, state-owned assets, greater labour market flexibility, lower tax rates for businesses, less restrictions on both domestic and foreign capital, open markets, etc. In support of liberalization, former British prime minister Tony Blair wrote that: "Success will go to those companies and ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Forced-access Regulation
In the context of infrastructure, open access involves physical infrastructure such as railways and physical telecommunications network plants being made available to clients other than owners, for a fee. For example, private railways within a steel works are private and not available to outsiders. In the hypothetical case of the steelworks having a port or a railway to a distant mine, outsiders might want access to save having to incur a possibly large cost of building their own facility. Marconi and radio communication The Marconi Company was a pioneer of long distance radio communication, which was particularly useful for ships at sea. Marconi was very protective about its costly infrastructure and refused—except for emergencies—to allow other radio companies to share its infrastructure. Even if the message sender was royalty, as in the ''Deutschland'' incident of 1902, they continued to refuse access. Since radio communication was so new, it preceded laws, regulations a ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Local Loop Unbundling
Local loop unbundling (LLU or LLUB) is the regulatory process of allowing multiple telecommunications operators to use connections from the telephone exchange to the customer's premises. The physical wire connection between the local exchange and the customer is known as a "local loop", and is owned by the incumbent local exchange carrier (also referred to as the "ILEC", "local exchange", or in the United States either a "Baby Bell" or an independent telephone company). To increase competition, other providers are granted unbundled access. Policy background LLU is generally opposed by the ILECs, which in most cases are either former investor-owned (North America) or state-owned monopoly enterprises forced to open themselves to competition. ILECs argue that LLU amounts to a regulatory taking, that they are forced to provide competitors with essential business inputs, that LLU stifles infrastructure-based competition and technical innovation because new entrants prefer to 'parasiti ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Independent System Operator
A regional transmission organization (RTO) in the United States is an electric power transmission system operator (TSO) that coordinates, controls, and monitors a multi-state electric grid. The transfer of electricity between states is considered interstate commerce, and electric grids spanning multiple states are therefore regulated by the Federal Energy Regulatory Commission (FERC). The voluntary creation of RTOs was initiated by FERC Order No. 2000, issued on December 20, 1999. The purpose of the RTO is to promote economic efficiency, reliability, and non-discriminatory practices while reducing government oversight. An independent system operator (ISO) is similarly an organization formed at the recommendation of FERC. In the areas where an ISO is established, it coordinates, controls, and monitors the operation of the electrical power system, usually within a single US state, but sometimes encompassing multiple states. RTOs typically perform the same functions as ISOs but cov ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Transmission System Operator
File:Electricity grid simple- North America.svg, 380px, Simplified diagram of AC electricity grid from generation stations to consumers rect 2 243 235 438 Power station rect 276 317 412 556 Transformer rect 412 121 781 400 Electric power transmission rect 800 0 980 165 Transformer desc bottom-left A transmission system operator (TSO) is an entity entrusted with transporting energy in the form of natural gasEuropean Network of Transmission System Operators for Gas ''''. Retrieved: 2 October 2010. or electrical power on a national or regional level, using fixed |
Energy Market
Energy markets are national and international regulated markets that deal specifically with the trade and supply of energy. Energy market may refer to an electricity market, but can also refer to other sources of energy. Typically energy development is the result of a government creating an energy policy that encourages the development of an energy industry in a competitive manner. Until the 1970s when energy markets underwent dramatic changes, they were characterised by monopoly-based organisational structures. Most of the world's petroleum reserves were controlled by the Seven Sisters. Circumstances changed considerably in 1973 as the influence of OPEC grew and the repercussions of the 1973 oil crisis affected global energy markets. Liberalization and regulation Energy markets have been liberalized in some countries; they are regulated by national and international authorities (including liberalized markets) to protect consumer rights and avoid oligopolies. Regulators i ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Royal Mail
, kw, Postya Riel, ga, An Post Ríoga , logo = Royal Mail.svg , logo_size = 250px , type = Public limited company , traded_as = , foundation = , founder = Henry VIII , location = London, England, UK , key_people = * Keith Williams (Non-executive Chairman) * Simon Thompson (CEO) , area_served = United Kingdom , industry = Postal services, courier , products = , services = Letter post, parcel service, EMS, delivery, freight forwarding, third-party logistics , revenue = £12.638 billion(2021) , operating_income = £611 million (2021) , net_income = £620 million (2021) , num_employees = 158,592 (2021) , parent = , divisions = * Royal Mail * Parcelforce Worldwide , subsid = * General Logistics Systems * eCourier * StoreFeeder * Intersoft Systems & Programming , homepage = , dissolved = , footnotes = International Distributions Services plc (formerly Royal Mail plc), trading as Royal Mail, is a British multinational postal ser ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Downstream Access
Downstream access (DSA) is mail that has been collected and distributed by a competitor, but is handed over to Royal Mail mail centres for final processing onto local delivery offices, where they are delivered. History The ability to utilise the Royal Mail network in this way (analogous to local loop unbundling in the telecoms sector) was first introduced in 2003, ending a 350-year monopoly. At first, there were strict limits, restricting DSA to large operations, however over time these have been relaxed further. With the final abolition of the Royal Mail monopoly (but not its universal service obligation), DSA mail makes up an ever-increasing proportion of mail received in the UK. However 99.8 percent of the mail delivered is delivered to Royal Mail to deliver for these third party suppliers. Government attempts to show competition in the postal sector have not created competition as such, but Royal Mail has lost some of the easier and more profitable section of its busines ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Unbundled Network Element
Unbundled network elements (UNEs) are a requirement mandated by the United States Telecommunications Act of 1996. They are the parts of the telecommunications network that the incumbent local exchange carriers (ILECs) are required to offer on an unbundled basis. Together, these parts make up a local loop that connects to a digital subscriber line access multiplexer (DSLAM), a voice switch or both. The loop allows non-facilities-based telecommunications providers to deliver service without having to lay network infrastructure such as copper wire, optical fiber, and coaxial cable. UNE-Platform A UNE-Platform (or UNE-P) is a combination of UNEs that allow end-to-end service delivery without any facilities. Despite not involving any CLEC facilities, a UNE-P still requires facilities-based certification from the Public Utilities Commission to deliver services. Availability In Telecommunications Act of 1996 sections 251(c)(3), incumbent local exchange carriers (LECs) are required t ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Telephone Exchange
A telephone exchange, telephone switch, or central office is a telecommunications system used in the public switched telephone network (PSTN) or in large enterprises. It interconnects telephone subscriber lines or virtual circuits of digital systems to establish telephone calls between subscribers. In historical perspective, telecommunication terms have been used with different semantics over time. The term ''telephone exchange'' is often used synonymously with ''central office'', a Bell System term. Often, a ''central office'' is defined as a building used to house the inside plant equipment of potentially several telephone exchanges, each serving a certain geographical area. Such an area has also been referred to as the exchange or exchange area. In North America, a central office location may also be identified as a ''wire center'', designating a facility to which a telephone is connected and obtains dial tone. For business and billing purposes, telecommunication carriers defi ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
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