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Procoptodon
''Procoptodon'' is an extinct genus of giant short-faced (sthenurine) kangaroos that lived in Australia during the Pleistocene Epoch. ''P. goliah'', the largest known kangaroo species that ever existed, stood at about . They weighed about . Other members of the genus were smaller, however; ''Procoptodon gilli'' was the smallest of all of the sthenurine kangaroos, standing approximately tall. The genus is derived from ''Simosthenurus'', making the latter genus paraphyletic. Description ''Procoptodon'' physiology was likely similar to that of the contemporary kangaroos; however, ''Procoptodon goliah'' was characterised by its large size. These sthenurines, or short-faced kangaroos, included species that were more than three times the size of the largest kangaroos living today. The largest, ''P. goliah'', was tall and weighed up to . These animals lived alongside modern species of kangaroos, but specialised on a diet of leaves from trees and shrubs. ''Procoptodon were'' large an ...
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Procoptodon Goliah NT
''Procoptodon'' is an extinct genus of giant short-faced ( sthenurine) kangaroos that lived in Australia during the Pleistocene Epoch. ''P. goliah'', the largest known kangaroo species that ever existed, stood at about . They weighed about . Other members of the genus were smaller, however; ''Procoptodon gilli'' was the smallest of all of the sthenurine kangaroos, standing approximately tall. The genus is derived from '' Simosthenurus'', making the latter genus paraphyletic. Description ''Procoptodon'' physiology was likely similar to that of the contemporary kangaroos; however, ''Procoptodon goliah'' was characterised by its large size. These sthenurines, or short-faced kangaroos, included species that were more than three times the size of the largest kangaroos living today. The largest, ''P. goliah'', was tall and weighed up to . These animals lived alongside modern species of kangaroos, but specialised on a diet of leaves from trees and shrubs. ''Procoptodon were'' large ...
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Procoptodon Goliah
''Procoptodon'' is an extinct genus of giant short-faced ( sthenurine) kangaroos that lived in Australia during the Pleistocene Epoch. ''P. goliah'', the largest known kangaroo species that ever existed, stood at about . They weighed about . Other members of the genus were smaller, however; ''Procoptodon gilli'' was the smallest of all of the sthenurine kangaroos, standing approximately tall. The genus is derived from '' Simosthenurus'', making the latter genus paraphyletic. Description ''Procoptodon'' physiology was likely similar to that of the contemporary kangaroos; however, ''Procoptodon goliah'' was characterised by its large size. These sthenurines, or short-faced kangaroos, included species that were more than three times the size of the largest kangaroos living today. The largest, ''P. goliah'', was tall and weighed up to . These animals lived alongside modern species of kangaroos, but specialised on a diet of leaves from trees and shrubs. ''Procoptodon were'' large ...
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Australian Megafauna
The term Australian megafauna refers to the megafauna in Australia during the Pleistocene Epoch. Most of these species became extinct during the latter half of the Pleistocene, and the roles of human and climatic factors in their extinction are contested. There are similarities between the prehistoric Australian megafauna and some mythical creatures from the Aboriginal Dreamtime. Causes of extinction Many modern researchers, including Tim Flannery, think that with the arrival of early Aboriginal Australians (around 70,000~65,000 years ago), hunting and the use of fire to manage their environment may have contributed to the extinction of the megafauna. Increased aridity during peak glaciation (about 18,000 years ago) may have also contributed, but most of the megafauna were already extinct by this time. Others, including Steve Wroe, note that records in the Australian Pleistocene are rare, and there is not enough data to definitively determine the time of extinction of many o ...
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Sthenurine
Sthenurinae (from ''Sthenurus'', Greek for 'strong-tailed') is a subfamily within the marsupial family Macropodidae, known as 'short faced kangaroos'. No members of this subfamily are extant today, with all becoming extinct by the late Pleistocene. ''Procoptodon goliah'', the largest macropodid known to have existed, was a sthenurine kangaroo, but sthenurines occurred in a range of sizes, with '' Procoptodon gilli'' being the smallest at the size of a small wallaby. The short, robust skull of sthenurines is considered to be indicative that they were browsers that fed on leaves. Some species may have been able to reach above their heads and grasp branches with their semiopposable paws to assist in procuring leaves from trees. A single hoofed digit is present on the feet of sthenurines. Taxonomy The subfamilial arrangement Sthenurinae was circumscribed by Ludwig Glauert in 1926. Locomotion Unlike modern macropodids, which hop (either bipedally or quadrupedally), sthenurines seem t ...
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Richard Owen
Sir Richard Owen (20 July 1804 – 18 December 1892) was an English biologist, comparative anatomist and paleontologist. Owen is generally considered to have been an outstanding naturalist with a remarkable gift for interpreting fossils. Owen produced a vast array of scientific work, but is probably best remembered today for coining the word '' Dinosauria'' (meaning "Terrible Reptile" or "Fearfully Great Reptile"). An outspoken critic of Charles Darwin's theory of evolution by natural selection, Owen agreed with Darwin that evolution occurred, but thought it was more complex than outlined in Darwin's ''On the Origin of Species''. Owen's approach to evolution can be considered to have anticipated the issues that have gained greater attention with the recent emergence of evolutionary developmental biology. Owen was the first president of the Microscopical Society of London in 1839 and edited many issues of its journal – then known as ''The Microscopic Journal''. Owen also c ...
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Menindee Lakes
The Menindee Lakes is a system of 9 large, but relatively shallow lakes, located in south-west New South Wales on the Darling (Barka) River, about 200 km upstream of the Darling River's junction with the River Murray. The Darling River is fed by nine major tributary river systems flowing from south-east Queensland and north and central NSW. The town of Menindee is close to the lakes and the nearest city is Broken Hill. There are 4 main lakes in the system: * Lake Wetherell * Lake Pamamaroo * Lake Menindee (the largest lake) * Lake Cawndilla. The lakes rely on replenishment, when water flows over the banks of the Darling (Barka) River. The NSW Government modified the lakes (completed 1968) to improve their storage capacity for farming, recreation, mining and urban water supply and to help manage floods in the Darling River. In the 1960s, governments decided to use some of the lakes as water storages, building a large weir (Main Weir) to divert water into lakes Pamamaroo, ...
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Australian Museum
The Australian Museum is a heritage-listed museum at 1 William Street, Sydney central business district, New South Wales, Australia. It is the oldest museum in Australia,Design 5, 2016, p.1 and the fifth oldest natural history museum in the world, with an international reputation in the fields of natural history and anthropology. It was first conceived and developed along the contemporary European model of an encyclopedic warehouse of cultural and natural history and features collections of vertebrate and invertebrate zoology, as well as mineralogy, palaeontology and anthropology. Apart from exhibitions, the museum is also involved in Indigenous studies research and community programs. In the museum's early years, collecting was its main priority, and specimens were commonly traded with British and other European institutions. The scientific stature of the museum was established under the curatorship of Gerard Krefft, himself a published scientist. The museum is located at ...
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Masseter
In human anatomy, the masseter is one of the muscles of mastication. Found only in mammals, it is particularly powerful in herbivores to facilitate chewing of plant matter. The most obvious muscle of mastication is the masseter muscle, since it is the most superficial and one of the strongest. Structure The masseter is a thick, somewhat quadrilateral muscle, consisting of three heads, superficial, deep and coronoid. The fibers of superficial and deep heads are continuous at their insertion. Superficial head The superficial head, the larger, arises by a thick, tendinous aponeurosis from the temporal process of the zygomatic bone, and from the anterior two-thirds of the inferior border of the zygomatic arch. Its fibers pass inferior and posterior, to be inserted into the angle of the mandible and inferior half of the lateral surface of the ramus of the mandible. Deep head The deep head is much smaller, and more muscular in texture. It arises from the posterior third of the lower ...
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Dental Microwear
Dental microwear analysis is a method to infer diet and behavior in extinct animals, especially in fossil specimens. Typically, the patterns of pits and scratches on the occlusal or buccal surface of the enamel are compared with patterns observed in extant species to infer ecological information. Hard foods in particular can lead to distinctive patterns (although see below). Microwear can also be used for inferring behavior, especially those related to the non-masticatory use of teeth as 'tools'. Other uses include investigating weaning in past populations. Methods used to collect data initially involved a microscope and manually collecting information on individual microwear features, but software to automatically collect data have improved markedly in recent years. Potential issues and on-going debates * The role of phytolith Phytoliths (from Greek, "plant stone") are rigid, microscopic structures made of silica, found in some plant tissues and persisting after the decay of ...
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Bicuspids
The premolars, also called premolar teeth, or bicuspids, are transitional teeth located between the canine and molar teeth. In humans, there are two premolars per quadrant in the permanent set of teeth, making eight premolars total in the mouth. They have at least two cusps. Premolars can be considered transitional teeth during chewing, or mastication. They have properties of both the canines, that lie anterior and molars that lie posterior, and so food can be transferred from the canines to the premolars and finally to the molars for grinding, instead of directly from the canines to the molars. Human anatomy The premolars in humans are the maxillary first premolar, maxillary second premolar, mandibular first premolar, and the mandibular second premolar. Premolar teeth by definition are permanent teeth distal to the canines, preceded by deciduous molars. Morphology There is always one large buccal cusp, especially so in the mandibular first premolar. The lower second p ...
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C4 Photosynthetic
carbon fixation or the Hatch–Slack pathway is one of three known photosynthetic processes of carbon fixation in plants. It owes the names to the 1960's discovery by Marshall Davidson Hatch and Charles Roger Slack that some plants, when supplied with 14, incorporate the 14C label into four-carbon molecules first. fixation is an addition to the ancestral and more common carbon fixation. The main carboxylating enzyme in photosynthesis is called RuBisCO, which catalyses two distinct reactions using either (carboxylation) or oxygen (oxygenation) as a substrate. The latter process, oxygenation, gives rise to the wasteful process of photorespiration. photosynthesis reduces photorespiration by concentrating around RuBisCO. To ensure that RuBisCO works in an environment where there is a lot of carbon dioxide and very little oxygen, leaves generally differentiate two partially isolated compartments called mesophyll cells and bundle-sheath cells. is initially fixed in the ...
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Dental Crown
In dentistry, a crown most commonly refers to a dental cap, a type of dental restoration that completely caps or encircles a tooth or dental implant. A crown may be needed when a large cavity threatens the health of a tooth. A crown is typically bonded to the tooth by dental cement. They can be made from various materials, which are usually fabricated using ''indirect methods''. Crowns are used to improve the strength or appearance of teeth and to halt deterioration. While beneficial to dental health, the procedure and materials can be costly. The most common method of crowning a tooth involves taking a dental impression of a tooth prepared by a dentist, then fabricating the crown outside of the mouth. The crown can then be inserted at a subsequent dental appointment. This ''indirect method'' of tooth restoration allows use of strong restorative material requiring time-consuming fabrication under intense heat, such as casting metal or firing porcelain, that would not be possible ...
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