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Ciguatoxins
300px, Chemical structure of the ciguatoxin CTX1B Ciguatoxins are a class of toxic polycyclic polyethers found in fish that cause ciguatera. There are several different chemicals in this class. "CTX" is often used as an abbreviation. * - Ciguatoxin 1 * - Ciguatoxin 2 * - Ciguatoxin 3 * - Ciguatoxin 4B (Gambiertoxin 4b) Toxic effect on humans Ciguatoxins do not harm the fish that carry them, but they are poisonous to humans. They cannot be smelled or tasted and cannot be destroyed by cooking. Rapid testing for this toxin in food is not standard. Some ciguatoxins lower the threshold for opening excitatory voltage-gated sodium channels in the nervous system. Opening a sodium channel causes depolarization, which could sequentially cause paralysis, heart contraction, and changing the senses of heat and cold. Such poisoning from ciguatoxins is known as ciguatera. Ciguatoxins are lipophillic, able to cross the blood brain barrier, and can cause both central and peripheral ne ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Ciguatoxin
image:ciguatoxin.svg, 300px, Chemical structure of the ciguatoxin CTX1B Ciguatoxins are a class of toxic Polycyclic compound, polycyclic polyethers found in fish that cause ciguatera. There are several different chemicals in this class. "CTX" is often used as an abbreviation. * - Ciguatoxin 1 * - Ciguatoxin 2 * - Ciguatoxin 3 * - Ciguatoxin 4B (Gambiertoxin 4b) Toxic effect on humans Ciguatoxins do not harm the fish that carry them, but they are poisonous to humans. They cannot be smelled or tasted and cannot be destroyed by cooking. Rapid testing for this toxin in food is not standard. Some ciguatoxins lower the threshold for opening excitatory voltage-gated sodium channels in the nervous system. Opening a sodium channel causes depolarization, which could sequentially cause paralysis, heart contraction, and changing the senses of heat and cold. Such poisoning from ciguatoxins is known as ciguatera. Ciguatoxins are lipophillic, able to cross the blood brain barrier, and ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Barracuda
A barracuda, or cuda for short, is a large, predatory, ray-finned fish known for its fearsome appearance and ferocious behaviour. The barracuda is a saltwater fish of the genus ''Sphyraena'', the only genus in the family Sphyraenidae, which was named by Constantine Samuel Rafinesque in 1815. It is found in tropical and subtropical oceans worldwide ranging from the eastern border of the Atlantic Ocean to the Red Sea, on its western border the Caribbean Sea, and in tropical areas of the Pacific Ocean. Barracudas reside near the top of the water and near coral reefs and sea grasses. Barracudas are targeted by sport-fishing enthusiasts. Etymology The common name "barracuda" is derived from Spanish, with the original word being of possibly Cariban origin. Description Barracuda are snake-like in appearance, with prominent, sharp-edged, fang-like teeth, much like piranha, all of different sizes, set in sockets of their large jaws. They have large, pointed heads with an underbi ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Polyether Toxins
In organic chemistry, ethers are a class of compounds that contain an ether group—an oxygen atom connected to two alkyl or aryl groups. They have the general formula , where R and R′ represent the alkyl or aryl groups. Ethers can again be classified into two varieties: if the alkyl or aryl groups are the same on both sides of the oxygen atom, then it is a simple or symmetrical ether, whereas if they are different, the ethers are called mixed or unsymmetrical ethers. A typical example of the first group is the solvent and anaesthetic diethyl ether, commonly referred to simply as "ether" (). Ethers are common in organic chemistry and even more prevalent in biochemistry, as they are common linkages in carbohydrates and lignin. Structure and bonding Ethers feature bent C–O–C linkages. In dimethyl ether, the bond angle is 111° and C–O distances are 141 pm. The barrier to rotation about the C–O bonds is low. The bonding of oxygen in ethers, alcohols, and water is ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Phycotoxins
Phycotoxins (from Greek, ''phykos'', "seaweed"; and ''toxikon'', "toxin") are complex allelopathic chemicals produced by eukaryotic and prokaryotic algal secondary metabolic pathways. More simply, these are toxic chemicals synthesized by photosynthetic organisms. These metabolites are (in most cases) not harmful to the producer but may be toxic to either one or many members of the marine food web. This page focuses on phycotoxins produced by marine microalgae; however, freshwater algae and macroalgae are known phycotoxin producers and may exhibit analogous ecological dynamics. In the pelagic marine food web, phytoplankton are subjected to grazing by macro- and micro-zooplankton as well as competition for nutrients with other phytoplankton species. Marine bacteria try to obtain a share of organic carbon by maintaining symbiotic, parasitic, commensal, or predatory interactions with phytoplankton. Other bacteria will degrade dead phytoplankton or consume organic carbon released by vir ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Marine Neurotoxins
Marine is an adjective meaning of or pertaining to the sea or ocean. Marine or marines may refer to: Ocean * Maritime (other) * Marine art * Marine biology * Marine debris * Marine habitats * Marine life * Marine pollution Military * Marines, a naval-based infantry force ** United States Marine Corps ** Royal Marines of the UK ** Brazilian Marine Corps ** Spanish Marine Infantry ** Fusiliers marins (France) ** Indonesian Marine Corps ** Republic of China Marine Corps ** Republic of Korea Marine Corps ** Royal Thai Marine Corps *"Marine" also means "navy" in several languages: ** Austro-Hungarian Navy () ** Belgian Navy (, , ) ** Royal Canadian Navy () *** Provincial Marine (1796–1910), a predecessor to the Royal Canadian Navy ** Navy of the Democratic Republic of the Congo () ** Royal Danish Navy () ** Finnish Navy (, ) ** French Navy () ** Gabonese Navy () ** German Navy () ** Royal Moroccan Navy () ** Royal Netherlands Navy () ** Swedish Navy () Places * Marines ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Ion Channel Toxins
An ion () is an atom or molecule with a net electrical charge. The charge of an electron is considered to be negative by convention and this charge is equal and opposite to the charge of a proton, which is considered to be positive by convention. The net charge of an ion is not zero because its total number of electrons is unequal to its total number of protons. A cation is a positively charged ion with fewer electrons than protons while an anion is a negatively charged ion with more electrons than protons. Opposite electric charges are pulled towards one another by electrostatic force, so cations and anions attract each other and readily form ionic compounds. Ions consisting of only a single atom are termed atomic or monatomic ions, while two or more atoms form molecular ions or polyatomic ions. In the case of physical ionization in a fluid (gas or liquid), "ion pairs" are created by spontaneous molecule collisions, where each generated pair consists of a free electron and a ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Tetrodotoxin
Tetrodotoxin (TTX) is a potent neurotoxin. Its name derives from Tetraodontiformes, an order that includes pufferfish, porcupinefish, ocean sunfish, and triggerfish; several of these species carry the toxin. Although tetrodotoxin was discovered in these fish and found in several other animals (e.g., in blue-ringed octopuses, rough-skinned newts, and moon snails), it is actually produced by certain infecting or symbiotic bacteria like ''Pseudoalteromonas'', ''Pseudomonas'', and ''Vibrio'' as well as other species found in animals. Tetrodotoxin is a sodium channel blocker. It inhibits the firing of action potentials in neurons by binding to the voltage-gated sodium channels in nerve cell membranes and blocking the passage of sodium ions (responsible for the rising phase of an action potential) into the neuron. This prevents the nervous system from carrying messages and thus muscles from contracting in response to nervous stimulation. Its mechanism of action, selective blocking o ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Saxitoxin
Saxitoxin (STX) is a potent neurotoxin and the best-known paralytic shellfish toxin (PST). Ingestion of saxitoxin by humans, usually by consumption of shellfish contaminated by toxic algal blooms, is responsible for the illness known as paralytic shellfish poisoning (PSP). The term saxitoxin originates from the genus name of the butter clam (''Saxidomus'') from which it was first isolated. But the term saxitoxin can also refer to the entire suite of more than 50 structurally related neurotoxins (known collectively as "saxitoxins") produced by protists, algae and cyanobacteria which includes saxitoxin itself (STX), neosaxitoxin (NSTX), gonyautoxins (GTX) and decarbamoylsaxitoxin (dcSTX). Saxitoxin has a large environmental and economic impact, as its presence in bivalve shellfish such as mussels, clams, oysters and scallops frequently leads to bans on commercial and recreational shellfish harvesting in many temperate coastal waters around the world including the Northeastern and W ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Okadaic Acid
Okadaic acid, C44H68O13, is a toxin produced by several species of dinoflagellates, and is known to accumulate in both marine sponges and shellfish. One of the primary causes of diarrhetic shellfish poisoning, okadaic acid is a potent inhibitor of specific protein phosphatases and is known to have a variety of negative effects on cells. A polyketide, polyether derivative of a C38 fatty acid, okadaic acid and other members of its family have shined light upon many biological processes both with respect to dinoflagellete polyketide synthesis as well as the role of protein phosphatases in cell growth. History As early as 1961, reports of gastrointestinal disorders following the consumption of cooked mussels appeared in both the Netherlands and Los Lagos. Attempts were made to determine the source of the symptoms, however they failed to elucidate the true culprit, instead implicating a species of microplanctonic dinoflagellates. In the summers of the late 1970s, a series of food po ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Domoic Acid
Domoic acid (DA) is a kainic acid-type neurotoxin that causes amnesic shellfish poisoning (ASP). It is produced by algae and accumulates in shellfish, sardines, and anchovies. When sea lions, otters, cetaceans, humans, and other predators eat contaminated animals, poisoning may result. Exposure to this compound affects the brain, causing seizures, and possibly death. History There has been little use of domoic acid throughout history except for in Japan, where it has been used as an anthelmintic for centuries. Domoic acid was first isolated in 1959 from a species of red algae, '' Chondria armata'', in Japan, which is commonly referred to as ''dōmoi'' (ドウモイ) in the Tokunoshima dialect, or ''hanayanagi''. Poisonings in history have been rare, or undocumented; however, it is thought that the increase in human activities is resulting in an increasing frequency of harmful algal blooms along coastlines in recent years. In 2015, the North American Pacific coast was heavily impac ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Brevetoxin
Brevetoxin (PbTx), or brevetoxins, are a suite of cyclic polyether compounds produced naturally by a species of dinoflagellate known as '' Karenia brevis''. Brevetoxins are neurotoxins that bind to voltage-gated sodium channels in nerve cells, leading to disruption of normal neurological processes and causing the illness clinically described as neurotoxic shellfish poisoning (NSP). Although brevetoxins are most well-studied in ''K. brevis'', they are also found in other species of '' Karenia'' and at least one large fish kill has been traced to brevetoxins in ''Chattonella''. Other Brevetoxins: *Brevetoxin-5 (PbTx-5): like PbTx-2, but acetylated hydroxyl group in position 38. *Brevetoxin-6 (PbTx-6): like PbTx-2, but double bond 27-28 is epoxidated. Brevetoxin-B was synthesized in 1995 by K. C. Nicolaou and coworkers in 123 steps with 91% average yield (final yield ~9·10−6) and in 2004 in a total of 90 steps with an average 93% yield for each step (0.14% overall). K. C. Nic ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Sea Bass
Sea bass is a common name for a variety of different species of marine fish. Many fish species of various families have been called sea bass. In Ireland and the United Kingdom, the fish sold and consumed as sea bass is exclusively the European bass, ''Dicentrarchus labrax''. Sometimes referred to as sea bass include the following: Family Serranidae Family Serranidae * Genus ''Paralabrax'' ** Barred sand bass (''Paralabrax nebulifer'') lives mainly off the coast of California. * Genus '' Centropristis'' **Black sea bass (''Centropristis striata'') is found on the East Coast of the United States. * Genus ''Caesioperca'' ** Butterfly perch (''Caesioperca Lepidoptera'') is found in the eastern Indian Ocean and the southwest Pacific Ocean, including southern Australia and New Zealand. * Genus '' Caprodon'' ** Pink maomao (''Caprodon longimanus'') is found in the eastern Indian Ocean and the southern Pacific Ocean, including Australia and New Zealand. * Genus ''Epinephelus'' **Potato c ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
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