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Toshiba–Kongsberg Scandal
The Toshiba–Kongsberg scandal (known in Japan as the Toshiba Machine Cocom violation case) was a late Cold War controversy that arose in 1987 when some member nations of the Coordinating Committee for Multilateral Export Controls (CoCom) violated foreign exchange and foreign trade laws when they exported machine tools to the Soviet Union that could be used in combination with the Kongsberg numerical control (NC) devices made in Norway, in violation of the CoCom agreement. The equipment allowed the submarine technology of the Soviet Union to progress significantly as it was being used to mill quieter propellers for Soviet submarines. The incident strained relations between the United States and Japan and resulted in the arrest and prosecution of two senior executives, as well as the imposition of sanctions on Kongsberg by both countries. The Incident The Toshiba Machine division (at that time) was a 50.1% subsidiary of Toshiba, a major Japanese manufacturer of machine tool ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Cold War
The Cold War is a term commonly used to refer to a period of geopolitical tension between the United States and the Soviet Union and their respective allies, the Western Bloc and the Eastern Bloc. The term '' cold war'' is used because there was no large-scale fighting directly between the two superpowers, but they each supported major regional conflicts known as proxy wars. The conflict was based around the ideological and geopolitical struggle for global influence by these two superpowers, following their temporary alliance and victory against Nazi Germany and Imperial Japan in 1945. Aside from the nuclear arsenal development and conventional military deployment, the struggle for dominance was expressed via indirect means such as psychological warfare, propaganda campaigns, espionage, far-reaching embargoes, rivalry at sports events, and technological competitions such as the Space Race. The Western Bloc was led by the United States as well as a number of other First W ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Kazan
Kazan ( ; rus, Казань, p=kɐˈzanʲ; tt-Cyrl, Казан, ''Qazan'', IPA: ɑzan is the capital and largest city of the Republic of Tatarstan in Russia. The city lies at the confluence of the Volga and the Kazanka rivers, covering an area of , with a population of over 1.2 million residents, up to roughly 1.6 million residents in the urban agglomeration. Kazan is the fifth-largest city in Russia, and the most populous city on the Volga, as well as the Volga Federal District. Kazan became the capital of the Khanate of Kazan and was conquered by Ivan the Terrible in the 16th century, becoming a part of Russia. The city was seized and largely destroyed during Pugachev's Rebellion of 1773–1775, but was later rebuilt during the reign of Catherine the Great. In the following centuries, Kazan grew to become a major industrial, cultural and religious centre of Russia. In 1920, after the Russian SFSR became a part of the Soviet Union, Kazan became the capital of the Tat ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Japan–Soviet Union Relations
Relations between the Soviet Union and Japan between the Communist takeover in 1917 and the collapse of Communism in 1991 tended to be hostile. Japan had Allied intervention in the Russian Civil War, sent troops to counter the Bolshevik presence in Russia's Far East during the Russian Civil War, and both countries had been in opposite camps during World War II and the Cold War. In addition, territorial conflicts over the Kuril Islands and South Sakhalin were a constant source of tension. These, with a number of smaller conflicts, prevented both countries from signing a peace treaty after World War II, and even today matters remain unresolved. Strains in Japan–Soviet Union relations have deep historical roots, going back to the Empire of Japan–Russian Empire relations, competition of the Empire of Japan, Japanese and Russian Empire, Russian empires for dominance in Northeast Asia. The Soviet government refused to sign Treaty of San Francisco, the 1951 peace treaty and the state ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Foreign Trade Of The Soviet Union
Soviet foreign trade played only a minor role in the Soviet economy. In 1985, for example, exports and imports each accounted for only 4 percent of the Soviet gross national product. The Soviet Union maintained this low level because it could draw upon a large energy and raw material base, and because it historically had pursued a policy of self-sufficiency. Other foreign economic activity included economic aid programs, which primarily benefited the less developed Council for Mutual Economic Assistance (COMECON) countries of Cuba, Mongolia, and Vietnam.Text used in this cited section originally came fromSoviet Union Country Studyfrom the Library of Congress Country Studies project. The Soviet Union conducted the bulk of its foreign economic activities with communist countries, particularly those of Eastern Europe. In 1988 Soviet trade with socialist countries amounted to 62 percent of total Soviet foreign trade. Between 1965 and 1988, trade with the Third World made up a steady 1 ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Espionage Scandals And Incidents
Espionage, spying, or intelligence gathering is the act of obtaining secret or confidential information (intelligence) from non-disclosed sources or divulging of the same without the permission of the holder of the information for a tangible benefit. A person who commits espionage is called an ''espionage agent'' or ''spy''. Any individual or spy ring (a cooperating group of spies), in the service of a government, company, criminal organization, or independent operation, can commit espionage. The practice is clandestine, as it is by definition unwelcome. In some circumstances, it may be a legal tool of law enforcement and in others, it may be illegal and punishable by law. Espionage is often part of an institutional effort by a government or commercial concern. However, the term tends to be associated with state spying on potential or actual enemies for military purposes. Spying involving corporations is known as industrial espionage. One of the most effective ways to ga ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Computing In The Soviet Union
Computing is any goal-oriented activity requiring, benefiting from, or creating computing machinery. It includes the study and experimentation of algorithmic processes, and development of both hardware and software. Computing has scientific, engineering, mathematical, technological and social aspects. Major computing disciplines include computer engineering, computer science, cybersecurity, data science, information systems, information technology and software engineering. The term "computing" is also synonymous with counting and calculating. In earlier times, it was used in reference to the action performed by mechanical computing machines, and before that, to human computers. History The history of computing is longer than the history of computing hardware and includes the history of methods intended for pen and paper (or for chalk and slate) with or without the aid of tables. Computing is intimately tied to the representation of numbers, though mathematical concepts ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
1987 In The United States
Events from the year 1987 in the United States. Incumbents Federal government * President of the United States, President: Ronald Reagan (Republican Party (United States), R-California) * Vice President of the United States, Vice President: George H. W. Bush (Republican Party (United States), R-Texas) * Chief Justice of the United States, Chief Justice: William Rehnquist (Wisconsin) * Speaker of the United States House of Representatives, Speaker of the House of Representatives: Tip O'Neill (Democratic Party (United States), D-Massachusetts) (until January 3), Jim Wright (Democratic Party (United States), D-Texas) (starting January 6) * Senate Majority Leader: Bob Dole (Republican Party (United States), R-Kansas) (until January 3), Robert Byrd (Democratic Party (United States), D-West Virginia) (starting January 3) * United States Congress, Congress: 99th United States Congress, 99th (until January 3), 100th United States Congress, 100th (starting January 3) Events Januar ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
1987 In Japan
Events in the year 1987 in Japan. 1987 was the second year of the Japanese asset price bubble: land values in Tokyo rose more than 85 percent between July 1986 and July 1987. Incumbents *Emperor of Japan, Emperor: Hirohito *Prime Minister of Japan, Prime Minister: Yasuhiro Nakasone (Liberal Democratic Party (Japan), L–Gunma) until November 6, Noboru Takeshita (L–Shimane) * Chief Cabinet Secretary: Masaharu Gotōda (L–Tokushima) until November 6, Keizō Obuchi (L–Gunma) * Chief Justice of the Supreme Court of Japan, Supreme Court: Kōichi Yaguchi * President of the House of Representatives of Japan, House of Representatives: Kenzaburō Hara (L–Hyōgo) * President of the House of Councillors: Masaaki Fujita (L–Hiroshima) * Diet of Japan, Diet sessions: 108th (regular session opened in December 1986, to May 27), 109th (extraordinary, July 6 to September 19), 110th (extraordinary, November 6 to November 11), 111th (extraordinary, November 27 to December 12), 112th (regular ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Bungeishunjū
is a Japanese publishing company known for its leading monthly magazine ''Bungeishunjū''. The company was founded by Kan Kikuchi in 1923. It grants the annual Akutagawa Prize, one of the most prestigious literary awards in Japan, as well as the annual Naoki Prize for popular novelists. It also granted (from 1955 to 2001) the annual Bungeishunjū Manga Award for achievement in the manga and illustration fields. It is headquartered in Chiyoda, Tokyo. The company publishes , the weekly , and the sports magazine ''Number'', which represent public opinion of literary, political, and sport-journalistic culture, respectively. The ''Bunshun'', in particular, has come to be known for litigation involving freedom of speech issues, particularly alleged privacy violations and defamation; see, for example, Mitsuo Kagawa. List of magazines The magazines published by Bungeishunjū include: * (published monthly) * (published monthly) * (published weekly) * (monthly literary issue) * (women' ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Shinchosha
is a publisher founded in 1896 in Japan and headquartered in Yaraichō, Shinjuku, Tokyo. Shinchosha is one of the sponsors of the Japan Fantasy Novel Award. Books * Haruki Murakami: ''Hard-Boiled Wonderland and the End of the World'' (1985), ''Uten Enten'' (1990), ''The Wind-Up Bird Chronicle'' (1997), '' After the quake'' (2000), '' 1Q84'' (2009-2010) * Alex Kerr: ''Lost Japan'' (1993) Book series Magazines Weekly * – since 1956 * – manga, discontinued in 2010 * ''Focus'' – suspended Monthly * – Literary magazine since 1904 * * * '' nicola'' * (suspended) * * * * ''ENGINE'' – Automobile magazine, since 2000 * '' Foresight'' – Japanese edition discontinued in 2010 * - manga, since 2011 Web magazine * '' Foresight'' – Japanese edition since 2010 * ''Daily Shinchō'' – comprehensive news site basically excerpting from '' Shukan Shincho'' since 2015 Seasonal * ''Grave of the Fireflies'' In 1967, Shinchosha published a short story ''Grave of the F ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Soviet Computing Technology Smuggling
Soviet computing technology smuggling, both attempted and actual, was a response to CoCom (Coordinating Committee for Multilateral Export Controls) restrictions on technology transfer. History Mainframe successes Initially the Soviet Union focused on mainframe computing technology, particularly the IBM 360 and 370. Between 1967 and 1972 much effort went into reverse engineering what they "acquired." Their first IBM-like machine was based on a 360/40 smuggled in via Poland. The second Soviet-built machine was from a 370/145. Their focus subsequently shifted to super- minicomputers. Failure in 1983 to import a VAX-11/782 did not stop their efforts. "Reverse-engineered and copied Apple IIe parts" brought microcomputers to the Soviet Union; it also brought computer viruses too. IBM PC compatible computers were also smuggled in. Production of Iron curtain mainframes, at one point, was estimated to be 180 per year. VAX failures The failure of the Soviets to acquire a VAX-11/78 ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
History Of Computing In The Soviet Union
The history of computing in the Soviet Union began in the late 1940s, when the country began to develop its Small Electronic Calculating Machine (MESM) at the Kiev Institute of Electrotechnology in Feofaniya. Initial ideological opposition to cybernetics in the Soviet Union was overcome by a Khrushchev era policy that encouraged computer production. By the early 1970s, the uncoordinated work of competing government ministries had left the Soviet computer industry in disarray. Due to lack of common standards for peripherals and lack of digital storage capacity the Soviet Union's technology significantly lagged behind the West's semiconductor industry. The Soviet government decided to abandon development of original computer designs and encouraged cloning of existing Western systems (e.g. the 1801 CPU series was scrapped in favor of the PDP-11 ISA by the early 80s). Soviet industry was unable to mass-produce computers to acceptable quality standards and locally manufactured cop ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
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