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Sevoflurane
Sevoflurane, sold under the brand name Sevorane, among others, is a sweet-smelling, nonflammable, highly fluorinated methyl isopropyl ether used as an inhalational anaesthetic for induction and maintenance of general anesthesia. After desflurane, it is the volatile anesthetic with the fastest onset. While its offset may be faster than agents other than desflurane in a few circumstances, its offset is more often similar to that of the much older agent isoflurane. While sevoflurane is only half as soluble as isoflurane in blood, the tissue blood partition coefficients of isoflurane and sevoflurane are quite similar. For example, in the muscle group: isoflurane 2.62 vs. sevoflurane 2.57. In the fat group: isoflurane 52 vs. sevoflurane 50. As a result, the longer the case, the more similar will be the emergence times for sevoflurane and isoflurane. Medical uses It is one of the most commonly used volatile anesthetic agents, particularly for outpatient anesthesia,Livertox: Clinical ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Halothane
Halothane, sold under the brand name Fluothane among others, is a general anaesthetic. It can be used to induce or maintain anaesthesia. One of its benefits is that it does not increase the production of saliva, which can be particularly useful in those who are difficult to intubate. It is given by inhalation. Side effects include an irregular heartbeat, respiratory depression, and hepatotoxicity. Like all volatile anesthetics, it should not be used in people with a personal or family history of malignant hyperthermia. It appears to be safe in porphyria. It is unclear whether use during pregnancy is harmful to the baby, and it is not generally recommended for use during a C-section. Halothane is a chiral molecule that is used as a racemic mixture. Halothane was discovered in 1955. It was approved for medical use in the United States in 1958. It is on the World Health Organization's List of Essential Medicines. Its use in developed countries has been mostly replaced by newer an ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Desflurane
Desflurane (1,2,2,2-tetrafluoroethyl difluoromethyl ether) is a highly fluorinated methyl ethyl ether used for maintenance of general anesthesia. Like halothane, enflurane, and isoflurane, it is a racemic mixture of (''R'') and (''S'') optical isomers (enantiomers). Together with sevoflurane, it is gradually replacing isoflurane for human use, except in economically undeveloped areas, where its high cost precludes its use. It has the most rapid onset and offset of the volatile anesthetic drugs used for general anesthesia due to its low solubility in blood. Some drawbacks of desflurane are its low potency, its pungency and its high cost (though at low flow fresh gas rates, the cost difference between desflurane and isoflurane appears to be insignificant). It may cause tachycardia and airway irritability when administered at concentrations greater than 10 vol%. Due to this airway irritability, desflurane is infrequently used to induce anesthesia via inhalation techniques. Though i ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Inhalational Anaesthetic
An inhalational anesthetic is a chemical compound possessing general anesthetic properties that can be delivered via inhalation. They are administered through a face mask, laryngeal mask airway or tracheal tube connected to an anesthetic vaporiser and an anesthetic delivery system. Agents of significant contemporary clinical interest include volatile anesthetic agents such as isoflurane, sevoflurane and desflurane, as well as certain anesthetic gases such as nitrous oxide and xenon. List of inhalational anaesthetic agents Currently-used agents * Desflurane * Isoflurane * Nitrous oxide * Sevoflurane * Xenon Previously-used agents Although some of these are still used in clinical practice and in research, the following anaesthetic agents are primarily of historical interest in developed countries: * Acetylene * Chloroethane (ethyl chloride) * Chloroform * Cryofluorane * Cyclopropane * Diethyl ether * Divinyl ether * Enflurane * Ethylene * Fluroxene * Halothane (still wi ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
General Anesthesia
General anaesthesia (UK) or general anesthesia (US) is a medically induced loss of consciousness that renders the patient unarousable even with painful stimuli. This effect is achieved by administering either intravenous or inhalational general anaesthetic medications, which often act in combination with an analgesic and neuromuscular blocking agent. Spontaneous ventilation is often inadequate during the procedure and intervention is often necessary to protect the airway. General anaesthesia is generally performed in an operating theater to allow surgical procedures that would otherwise be intolerably painful for a patient, or in an intensive care unit or emergency department to facilitate endotracheal intubation and mechanical ventilation in critically ill patients. A variety of drugs may be administered, with the overall goal of achieving unconsciousness, amnesia, analgesia, loss of reflexes of the autonomic nervous system, and in some cases paralysis of skeletal mus ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Hexafluoroisopropanol
Hexafluoroisopropanol, commonly abbreviated HFIP, is the organic compound with the formula (CF3)2CHOH. This fluoroalcohol finds use as solvent and synthetic intermediate. It appears as a colorless, volatile liquid that is characterized by a strong, pungent odor. As a solvent hexafluoro-2-propanol is polar and exhibits strong hydrogen bonding properties enabling it to dissolve substances that serve as hydrogen-bond acceptors, such as amides and ethers. (CF3)2CHOH is classified as a hard Lewis acid and its acceptor properties are discussed in the ECW model. Its relative acceptor strength toward a series of bases, versus other Lewis acids, can be illustrated by C-B plots. Dual XH–π interaction of HFIP with arenes has been found (benzene/HFIP, 7.22 kcal/mol) even stronger than the hydrogen bond in a water dimer (5-6 kcal/mol). Hexafluoro-2-propanol is transparent to UV light with high density, low viscosity and low refractive index. Production and uses Hexafluoro-propan-2-ol ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
CYP2E1
Cytochrome P450 2E1 (abbreviated CYP2E1, ) is a member of the cytochrome P450 mixed-function oxidase system, which is involved in the metabolism of xenobiotics in the body. This class of enzymes is divided up into a number of subcategories, including CYP1, CYP2, and CYP3, which as a group are largely responsible for the breakdown of foreign compounds in mammals. While CYP2E1 itself carries out a relatively low number of these reactions (~4% of known P450-mediated drug oxidations), it and related enzymes CYP1A2 and CYP3A4 are responsible for the breakdown of many toxic environmental chemicals and carcinogens that enter the body, in addition to basic metabolic reactions such as fatty acid oxidations. Function CYP2E1 is a membrane protein expressed in high levels in the liver, where it composes nearly 50% of the total hepatic cytochrome P450 mRNA and 7% of the hepatic cytochrome P450 protein. The liver is therefore where most drugs undergo deactivation by CYP2E1, either directly ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
General Anesthetics
General anaesthetics (or anesthetics, see spelling differences) are often defined as compounds that induce a loss of consciousness in humans or loss of righting reflex in animals. Clinical definitions are also extended to include an induced coma that causes lack of awareness to painful stimuli, sufficient to facilitate surgical applications in clinical and veterinary practice. General anaesthetics do not act as analgesics and should also not be confused with sedatives. General anaesthetics are a structurally diverse group of compounds whose mechanisms encompasses multiple biological targets involved in the control of neuronal pathways. The precise workings are the subject of some debate and ongoing research. General anesthetics elicit a state of general anesthesia. It remains somewhat controversial regarding how this state should be defined. General anesthetics, however, typically elicit several key reversible effects: immobility, analgesia, amnesia, unconsciousness, and reduced ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Nitrous Oxide
Nitrous oxide (dinitrogen oxide or dinitrogen monoxide), commonly known as laughing gas, nitrous, or nos, is a chemical compound, an oxide of nitrogen with the formula . At room temperature, it is a colourless non-flammable gas, and has a slightly sweet scent and taste. At elevated temperatures, nitrous oxide is a powerful oxidiser similar to molecular oxygen. Nitrous oxide has significant medical uses, especially in surgery and dentistry, for its anaesthetic and pain-reducing effects. Its colloquial name, "laughing gas", coined by Humphry Davy, is due to the euphoric effects upon inhaling it, a property that has led to its recreational use as a dissociative anaesthetic. It is on the World Health Organization's List of Essential Medicines. It is also used as an oxidiser in rocket propellants, and in motor racing to increase the power output of engines. Nitrous oxide's atmospheric concentration reached 333 parts per billion (ppb) in 2020, increasing a ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Theories Of General Anaesthetic Action
A general anaesthetic (or anesthetic) is a drug that brings about a reversible loss of consciousness. These drugs are generally administered by an anaesthetist/anesthesiologist in order to induce or maintain general anaesthesia to facilitate surgery. General anaesthetics have been widely used in surgery since 1842 when Crawford Long for the first time administered diethyl ether to a patient and performed a painless operation. It has long been believed that general anaesthetics exert their effects (analgesia, unconsciousness, immobility) through a membrane mediated mechanism or by directly modulating the activity of membrane proteins in the neuronal membrane. In general, different anaesthetics exhibit different mechanisms of action such that there are numerous molecular targets at all levels of integration within the central nervous system. However, for certain intravenous anaesthetics, such as propofol and etomidate, the main molecular target has been identified to be GABAA rece ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Halogenated Ether
A halogenated ether is a subcategory of a larger group of chemicals known as ethers. An ether is an organic chemical that contains an ether group—an oxygen atom connected to two (substituted) alkyl groups. A good example of an ether is the solvent diethyl ether. What differentiates a halogenated ether from other types of ethers is the substitution ( halogenation) of one or more hydrogen atoms with a halogen atom. Halogen atoms include fluorine, chlorine, bromine, and iodine. Use in anesthesiology Perhaps the most common use of halogenated ethers has been in anesthesiology. The first widely used inhalation anesthetic was diethyl ether, which is a non-substituted (non-halogenated) ether. This drug enabled surgeons to perform otherwise painful operations on patients after rendering them unconscious. Diethyl ether has the unfortunate disadvantage of being extremely flammable, especially in the presence of enriched oxygen mixtures. This property has resulted ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Isoflurane
Isoflurane, sold under the brand name Forane among others, is a general anesthetic. It can be used to start or maintain anesthesia; however, other medications are often used to start anesthesia rather than isoflurane, due to airway irritation with isoflurane. Isoflurane is given via inhalation. Side effects of isoflurane include a decreased ability to breathe (respiratory depression), low blood pressure, and an irregular heartbeat. Serious side effects can include malignant hyperthermia or high blood potassium. It should not be used in patients with a history of malignant hyperthermia in either themselves or their family members. It is unknown if its use during pregnancy is safe for the fetus, but use during a cesarean section appears to be safe. Isoflurane is a halogenated ether. Isoflurane was approved for medical use in the United States in 1979. It is on the World Health Organization's List of Essential Medicines. Medical uses Isoflurane is always administered ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
NMDA Receptor Antagonist
NMDA receptor antagonists are a class of drugs that work to antagonize, or inhibit the action of, the ''N''-Methyl-D-aspartate receptor ( NMDAR). They are commonly used as anesthetics for animals and humans; the state of anesthesia they induce is referred to as dissociative anesthesia. Several synthetic opioids function additionally as NMDAR-antagonists, such as pethidine, levorphanol, methadone, dextropropoxyphene, tramadol and ketobemidone. Some NMDA receptor antagonists, such as ketamine, dextromethorphan (DXM), phencyclidine (PCP), methoxetamine (MXE), and nitrous oxide (N2O), are sometimes used as recreational drugs, for their dissociative, hallucinogenic, and euphoriant properties. When used recreationally, they are classified as dissociative drugs. Uses and effects NMDA receptor antagonists induce a state called dissociative anesthesia, marked by catalepsy, amnesia, and analgesia. Ketamine is a favored anesthetic for emergency patients with unknown medical histor ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
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