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Règlement Organique (Mount Lebanon)
The ''Règlement Organique'' ("Organic Regulation") was a series of international conventions, between 1860 and 1864, between the Ottoman Empire and the European Powers, which led to the creation of the Mount Lebanon Mutasarrifate. The 1860 Lebanon conflict led France to intervene and stop the massacre of Christian civilians after Ottoman troops had been aiding Islamic forces by either direct support or by disarming Christian forces. France, led by Napoleon III, recalled its ancient role as protector of Christians in the Ottoman Empire which was established in a treaty in 1523. Following the massacre and an international outcry, the Ottoman Empire agreed on 3 August 1860 to the dispatch of up to 12,000 European soldiers to reestablish order. The region of Syria was then part of the Ottoman Empire. The agreement was further formalized in a convention on 5 September 1860 with Austria, Great Britain, France, Prussia and Russia. France was to supply half of that number, and other countr ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Ottoman Empire
The Ottoman Empire, * ; is an archaic version. The definite article forms and were synonymous * and el, Оθωμανική Αυτοκρατορία, Othōmanikē Avtokratoria, label=none * info page on book at Martin Luther University) // CITED: p. 36 (PDF p. 38/338) also known as the Turkish Empire, was an empire that controlled much of Southeast Europe, Western Asia, and Northern Africa between the 14th and early 20th centuries. It was founded at the end of the 13th century in northwestern Anatolia in the town of Söğüt (modern-day Bilecik Province) by the Turkoman tribal leader Osman I. After 1354, the Ottomans crossed into Europe and, with the conquest of the Balkans, the Ottoman beylik was transformed into a transcontinental empire. The Ottomans ended the Byzantine Empire with the conquest of Constantinople in 1453 by Mehmed the Conqueror. Under the reign of Suleiman the Magnificent, the Ottoman Empire marked the peak of its power and prosperity, as well a ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Édouard Thouvenel
Édouard Antoine de Thouvenel (11 November 1818, Verdun, Meuse – 18 October 1866) was ambassador to the Ottoman Empire from 1855 to 1860, and French Minister of Foreign Affairs from 1860 to 1862. Career After studying law and travelling throughout Europe, in 1840 Thouvenel published an account of his travels which first appeared in the ''Revue des Deux Mondes'' (''la Hongrie et la Valachie. Souvenirs de voyages et notices historiques''). He entered the foreign service in 1841 with the help of his sister. She was married to Alfred-August Cuvillier-Fleury, the former preceptor of Henri d'Orléans, Duke of Aumale. Thouvenel was appointed attaché to the French embassy in Brussels in 1844, followed by Athens in 1845. He became Chargé d'affaires in Athens in 1848 and afterwards became Minister Plenipotentiary to the Kingdom of Bavaria. In July 1850 he was made a ''Commandeur'' of the Legion of Honour, followed by ''Grand Officier'' (January 10 1854), and finally ''Grand Cross'' (14 ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Anton Von Prokesch-Osten
Anton von Prokesch-Osten (german: Anton Graf Prokesch von Osten; 10 December 1795, in Graz – 26 October 1876, in Vienna) was an Austrian diplomat, statesman and general. Life Anton von Prokesch was a man of great versatility, whose multi-faceted career as a soldier, then as a diplomat and statesman, was one of the most remarkable of Austria in the nineteenth century. He participated in the war against France in 1813–1814 and in 1815 as an officer for an order of the Archduke Charles, and then taught mathematics in a military school, before becoming, in 1818 to 1820, secretary of Marshal Karl Philipp von Schwarzenberg. He then joined the diplomatic corps at the invitation of Prince Clemens von Metternich. From 1824 he was sent on mission to the Middle East to observe various conflicts starting with the Greek War of Independence. This appointment was a turning point in his career. He became an authority on the languages and cultures of the Middle East. In addition, numero ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Charles, Marquis De La Valette
Charles-Jean-Marie-Félix, '' marquis'' de La Valette (25 November 1806 – 2 May 1881) was a French politician and diplomat. Career Charles de La Valette was Minister of the Interior and of Foreign Affairs in the government of Emperor Napoleon III. He was French Ambassador to Constantinople from 1851-53, before the Crimean War, then served as a government minister, before a posting to the Vatican (an ancestral family member Jean Parisot de Valette had been Grand Master of the Order of Malta). An Anglophile, he finally returned to London in an official capacity as French Ambassador from 1869 to 1870. Personal life The Marquis married firstly Maria Garrow Birkett at London in 1828. Maria, a daughter of the late Daniel Birkett, Esq., of Isleworth, died in 1831, aged 24. In 1842, he married secondly to Adeline Fowle Welles (1799–1869), the widow of a Boston banker Samuel Welles, who died in 1841. After twenty-seven years of marriage, Adeline died in 1869. He married t ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Mehmed Emin Âli Pasha
Mehmed Emin Âli Pasha, also spelled as Mehmed Emin Aali (March 5, 1815 – September 7, 1871) was a prominent Ottoman statesman during the Tanzimat period, best known as the architect of the Ottoman Reform Edict of 1856, and for his role in the Treaty of Paris (1856) that ended the Crimean War. Âli Pasha was widely regarded as a deft and able statesman, and often credited with preventing an early break-up of the empire. Âli Pasha advocated for a western style of reform to modernize the empire, including secularization of the state and improvements to civil liberties. He worked to pacify nationalist movements while at the same time fend off foreign aggressors that were trying to weaken Ottoman control. He advocated for an Ottoman nationalism that would replace diverse ethnic and religious loyalties. From humble origins as the son of a doorkeeper, Âli Pasha rose through the ranks of the Ottoman state and became the Minister of Foreign Affairs for a short time in 1840, and a ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Blockhouse
A blockhouse is a small fortification, usually consisting of one or more rooms with loopholes, allowing its defenders to fire in various directions. It is usually an isolated fort in the form of a single building, serving as a defensive strong point against any enemy that does not possess siege equipment or, in modern times, artillery, air force and cruise missiles. A fortification intended to resist these weapons is more likely to qualify as a fortress or a redoubt, or in modern times, be an underground bunker. However, a blockhouse may also refer to a room within a larger fortification, usually a battery or redoubt. Etymology The term '' blockhouse'' is of uncertain origin, perhaps related to Middle Dutch '' blokhus'' and 18th-century French '' blocus'' (blockade). In ancient Greece Blockhouses existed in ancient Greece, for example the one near Mycenae. Early blockhouses in England Early blockhouses were designed solely to protect a particular area by the use of ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Deir El Qamar
Deir al-Qamar ( ar, دَيْر الْقَمَر, lit=Monastery of the moon, translit=Dayr al-qamar), is a city south-east of Beirut in south-central Lebanon. It is located five kilometres outside of Beiteddine in the Chouf District of the Mount Lebanon Governorate at 800 m of average altitude. History Crusader period The oldest written reference to Deir el Qamar (''Deir elcamar'' or ''Deir elchamar'') goes back to 1257 and 1261 in the deeds of ''Julian of Shouf'' and ''Andrew of Shouf'' selling their lands and villages in their lordship of Shouf to the Theutonic Order as reported in ''Tabulae Ordinis Theutonici''. Ottoman period During the 16th to 18th centuries, Deir al-Qamar was the capital and the residence of the Emirate of Mount Lebanon. It is also notable for its 15th-century Fakhreddine Mosque, Fakhreddine II Palace, and the palace of the Emir Yusuf Shihab - today housing the Municipal Council. A 17th-century synagogue is still standing in the village, although clos ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Mushir
( ar, مشير) is an Arabic word meaning "counsellor" or "advisor". It is related to the word shura, meaning consultation or "taking counsel". As an official title, it historically indicates a personal advisor to the ruler. In this use it is roughly comparable to the European titles of State Counsellor and Counsellor of State. In a military context, became associated with the idea of the ruler's personal counsellor or advisor on military matters, and as such became the highest rank in Arab countries and the Ottoman Empire. It is used as the highest rank in most armed forces of the Middle East and North Africa, for armies, navies, and air forces. It is therefore equivalent to the ranks of Field Marshal and Admiral of the Fleet. Iraq In Iraq under the rule of Saddam Hussein, the Iraqi Navy maintained a fleet admiral rank known as . A Mushir was the most senior of all naval officers and the rank was rarely bestowed. The sleeve insignia was the same as a British Admiral of ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Congress Of Vienna
The Congress of Vienna (, ) of 1814–1815 was a series of international diplomatic meetings to discuss and agree upon a possible new layout of the European political and constitutional order after the downfall of the French Emperor Napoleon Bonaparte. Participants were representatives of all European powers and other stakeholders, chaired by Austrian statesman Klemens von Metternich, and held in Vienna from September 1814 to June 1815. The objective of the Congress was to provide a long-term peace plan for Europe by settling critical issues arising from the French Revolutionary Wars and the Napoleonic Wars without the use of (military) violence. The goal was not simply to restore old boundaries, but to resize the main powers so they could balance each other and remain at peace, being at the same time shepherds for the smaller powers. More fundamentally, strongly generalising, conservative thinking leaders like Von Metternich also sought to restrain or eliminate republicanism, ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Firman
A firman ( fa, , translit=farmân; ), at the constitutional level, was a royal mandate or decree issued by a sovereign in an Islamic state. During various periods they were collected and applied as traditional bodies of law. The word firman comes from Persian meaning "decree" or "order". On a more practical level, a firman was, and may still be, any written permission granted by the appropriate Islamic official at any level of government. Westerners are perhaps most familiar with the permission to travel in a country, which typically could be purchased beforehand, or the permission to conduct scholarly investigation in the country, such as archaeological excavation. Firmans may or may not be combined with various sorts of passports. Etymology Farmān (also spelled firman) is the modern Persian form of the word and derives from Middle Persian (Pahlavi) ''framān'', ultimately from Old Persian ''framānā'' (''fra'' = "fore", Greek πρό). The difference between the modern Pe ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Pavel Kiselyov
Count Pavel Dmitrievich Kiselyov or Kiseleff (Па́вел Дми́триевич Киселёв) (, Moscow – , Paris) is generally regarded as the most brilliant Russian reformer during Nicholas I's generally conservative reign. Early military career Kiselyov first distinguished himself during the Napoleonic Wars, serving as Count Miloradovich's aide-de-camp in the Battle of Borodino, marching with the Russian army all the way to Paris and gaining promotion to Alexander I's aide-de-camp at the close of the campaign. Five years later, Kiselyov was appointed Chief of Staff of the Second Army, stationed in Tulchyn, Podolia. It was there that he first tried to implement his reforms, including the mitigation and condemnation of corporal punishment, which aroused the animosity of the powerful War Minister, Count Arakcheyev. Pavel Pestel and other Decembrists who formed the southern revolutionary league served under Kiselyov and were supported by him, although the extent to ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Heinrich VII, Prince Reuss Of Köstritz
Heinrich VII, Prince Reuss of Köstritz (german: Heinrich VII. Reuß zu Köstritz; 14 July 1825, Klipphausen – 2 May 1906, Trzebiechów) was a German diplomat. Early life Prince Heinrich VII Reuss of Köstritz was born in 1825 as the fifth child and third son of Prince Heinrich LXIII, Prince Reuss of Köstritz and his first wife, Countess Eleonore of Stolberg-Wernigerode (1801-1827). Biography From 1845 to 1848 he studied law at Ruprecht Karls University of Heidelberg and Humboldt University of Berlin. He then joined the 8th Lancers Regiment. From 1853, he pursued a diplomatic career. From 1854 to 1863 he worked as a diplomat (''Legationsrat'') in the Prussian embassy in Paris. Then he was sent as Prussian royal ambassador to Kassel, and later to Munich. On 5 February 1868 he was posted as envoy extraordinary and minister plenipotentiary of the North German Confederation to the Russian court at St. Petersburg by William I, who was still King of Prussia at that t ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
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