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Rayah
A raiyah or reaya (from , a plural of "countryman, animal, sheep pasturing, subjects, nationals, flock", also spelled ''raiya'', ''raja'', ''raiah'', ''re'aya''; Ottoman Turkish رعايا ; Modern Turkish râiya or reaya; related to the Arabic word rā'ī راعي which means "shepherd, herdsman, patron") was a member of the tax-paying lower class of Ottoman society, in contrast to the askeri and kul. The raiyah made up over 90% of the general population in the millet communities. In the Muslim world, raiyah is literally ''subject'' of a government or sovereign. The raiyah (literally 'members of the flock') included Christians, Muslims, and Jews who were 'shorn' (''i.e.'' taxed) to support the state and the associated 'professional Ottoman' class. However, both in contemporaneous and in modern usage, it refers to non-Muslim subjects in particular, also called zimmi. In the early Ottoman Empire, raiyah were not eligible for military service, but from the late 16th century, ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Askeri
Under the Ottoman Empire, an askeri (Ottoman Turkish: عسكري) was a member of a class of military administrators. This elite class consisted of three main groups: the military, the court officials, and clergy. Though the term ''askeri'' itself literally means "of the military", it more broadly encompassed all higher levels of imperial administration. To become a member of this ruling elite, one thus had to hold a ''political'' office in the service of the Ottoman Empire, meaning that both Muslims and non-Muslims in those positions could rank as ''askeri''. After Napoleon invaded Ottoman Egypt in 1798, a reform movement in the regime of Sultan Selim III aimed to reduce the numbers of the askeri class, who were the first-class citizens or military class (also called Janissaries). Sultan Selim III was taken prisoner (1807) and murdered (1808) in the course of Janissary revolts. A subsequent sultan, Mahmud II (), was patient but remembered the results of the uprising in ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Ottoman Turkish Language
Ottoman Turkish ( ota, لِسانِ عُثمانى, Lisân-ı Osmânî, ; tr, Osmanlı Türkçesi) was the standardized register of the Turkish language used by the citizens of the Ottoman Empire (14th to 20th centuries CE). It borrowed extensively, in all aspects, from Arabic and Persian, and its speakers used the Ottoman Turkish alphabet for written communication. During the peak of Ottoman power (), words of foreign origin in Turkish literature in the Ottoman Empire heavily outnumbered native Turkish words, with Arabic and Persian vocabulary accounting for up to 88% of the Ottoman vocabulary in some texts.''Persian Historiography & Geography''Pustaka Nasional Pte Ltd p 69 Consequently, Ottoman Turkish was largely unintelligible to the less-educated lower-class and to rural Turks, who continued to use ("raw/vulgar Turkish"; compare Vulgar Latin and Demotic Greek), which used far fewer foreign loanwords and is the basis of the modern standard. The Tanzimât era (18 ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Turkish Language
Turkish ( , ), also referred to as Turkish of Turkey (''Türkiye Türkçesi''), is the most widely spoken of the Turkic languages, with around 80 to 90 million speakers. It is the national language of Turkey and Northern Cyprus. Significant smaller groups of Turkish speakers also exist in Iraq, Syria, Germany, Austria, Bulgaria, North Macedonia, Greece, the Caucasus, and other parts of Europe and Central Asia. Cyprus has requested the European Union to add Turkish as an official language, even though Turkey is not a member state. Turkish is the 13th most spoken language in the world. To the west, the influence of Ottoman Turkish—the variety of the Turkish language that was used as the administrative and literary language of the Ottoman Empire—spread as the Ottoman Empire expanded. In 1928, as one of Atatürk's Reforms in the early years of the Republic of Turkey, the Ottoman Turkish alphabet was replaced with a Latin alphabet. The distinctive characteristics of the Turk ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Ottoman Empire
The Ottoman Empire, * ; is an archaic version. The definite article forms and were synonymous * and el, Оθωμανική Αυτοκρατορία, Othōmanikē Avtokratoria, label=none * info page on book at Martin Luther University) // CITED: p. 36 (PDF p. 38/338) also known as the Turkish Empire, was an empire that controlled much of Southeast Europe, Western Asia, and Northern Africa between the 14th and early 20th centuries. It was founded at the end of the 13th century in northwestern Anatolia in the town of Söğüt (modern-day Bilecik Province) by the Turkoman tribal leader Osman I. After 1354, the Ottomans crossed into Europe and, with the conquest of the Balkans, the Ottoman beylik was transformed into a transcontinental empire. The Ottomans ended the Byzantine Empire with the conquest of Constantinople in 1453 by Mehmed the Conqueror. Under the reign of Suleiman the Magnificent, the Ottoman Empire marked the peak of its power and prosperity, as ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Kul (Ottoman Empire)
Slavery in the Ottoman Empire was a lawful institution and a significant part of the Ottoman Empire's economy and traditional society. The main sources of slaves were wars and politically organized enslavement expeditions in the Caucasus, Eastern Europe, Southern Europe, the Balkans, and Africa. It has been reported that the selling price of slaves decreased after large military operations.Spyropoulos Yannis, Slaves and freedmen in 17th- and early 18th-century Ottoman Crete, ''Turcica'', 46, 2015, p. 181, 182. In Constantinople (present-day Istanbul), the administrative and political center of the Ottoman Empire, about a fifth of the 16th- and 17th-century population consisted of slaves. Statistics of these centuries suggest that Istanbul's additional slave imports from the Black Sea have totaled around 2.5 million from 1453 to 1700. Even after several measures to ban slavery in the late 19th century, the practice continued largely unabated into the early 20th century. As la ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Millet (Ottoman Empire)
In the Ottoman Empire, a millet (; ar, مِلَّة) was an independent court of law pertaining to "personal law" under which a confessional community (a group abiding by the laws of Muslim Sharia, Christian Canon law, or Jewish Halakha) was allowed to rule itself under its own laws. Despite frequently being referred to as a "system", before the nineteenth century the organization of what are now retrospectively called millets in the Ottoman Empire was not at all systematic. Rather, non-Muslims were simply given a significant degree of autonomy within their own community, without an overarching structure for the 'millet' as a whole. The notion of distinct millets corresponding to different religious communities within the empire would not emerge until the eighteenth century. Subsequently, the existence of the millet system was justified through numerous foundation myths linking it back to the time of Sultan Mehmed the Conqueror (r. 1451–81), although it is now understood tha ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Muslim
Muslims ( ar, المسلمون, , ) are people who adhere to Islam, a monotheistic religion belonging to the Abrahamic tradition. They consider the Quran, the foundational religious text of Islam, to be the verbatim word of the God of Abraham (or '' Allah'') as it was revealed to Muhammad, the main Islamic prophet. The majority of Muslims also follow the teachings and practices of Muhammad ('' sunnah'') as recorded in traditional accounts ('' hadith''). With an estimated population of almost 1.9 billion followers as of 2020 year estimation, Muslims comprise more than 24.9% of the world's total population. In descending order, the percentage of people who identify as Muslims on each continental landmass stands at: 45% of Africa, 25% of Asia and Oceania (collectively), 6% of Europe, and 1% of the Americas. Additionally, in subdivided geographical regions, the figure stands at: 91% of the Middle East–North Africa, 90% of Central Asia, 65% of the Caucasus, 42% of Southeas ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Dhimmi
' ( ar, ذمي ', , collectively ''/'' "the people of the covenant") or () is a historical term for non-Muslims living in an Islamic state with legal protection. The word literally means "protected person", referring to the state's obligation under ''sharia'' to protect the individual's life, property, as well as freedom of religion, in exchange for loyalty to the state and payment of the ''jizya'' tax, in contrast to the '' zakat'', or obligatory alms, paid by the Muslim subjects. ''Dhimmi'' were exempt from certain duties assigned specifically to Muslims if they paid the poll tax (''jizya'') but were otherwise equal under the laws of property, contract, and obligation. Historically, dhimmi status was originally applied to Jews, Christians, and Sabians, who are considered to be "People of the Book" in Islamic theology. This status later also came to be applied to Zoroastrians, Sikhs, Hindus, Jains, and Buddhists. Jews and Christians were required to pay the ''jizyah'' w ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Collaborative International Dictionary Of English
The ''Collaborative International Dictionary of English'' (''CIDE'') was derived from the 1913 ''Webster's Dictionary'' and has been supplemented with some of the definitions from WordNet. It is being proof-read and supplemented by volunteers from around the world. This electronic dictionary is also made available as a potential starting point for development of a modern comprehensive encyclopedic dictionary, to be accessible freely on the Internet, and developed by the efforts of all individuals willing to help build a large and freely available knowledge base.Readme file Documentation accompanying the version of the set of files containing the electronic version of the CIDE. There are several derivative versions of this dic ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Dhimmi
' ( ar, ذمي ', , collectively ''/'' "the people of the covenant") or () is a historical term for non-Muslims living in an Islamic state with legal protection. The word literally means "protected person", referring to the state's obligation under ''sharia'' to protect the individual's life, property, as well as freedom of religion, in exchange for loyalty to the state and payment of the ''jizya'' tax, in contrast to the '' zakat'', or obligatory alms, paid by the Muslim subjects. ''Dhimmi'' were exempt from certain duties assigned specifically to Muslims if they paid the poll tax (''jizya'') but were otherwise equal under the laws of property, contract, and obligation. Historically, dhimmi status was originally applied to Jews, Christians, and Sabians, who are considered to be "People of the Book" in Islamic theology. This status later also came to be applied to Zoroastrians, Sikhs, Hindus, Jains, and Buddhists. Jews and Christians were required to pay the ''jizyah'' w ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Giaour
Giaour or Gawur (; tr, gâvur, ; from fa, گور ''gâvor'' an obsolete variant of modern گبر '' gaur'', originally derived from arc, 𐡂𐡁𐡓𐡀, ''gaḇrā'', man; person; ro, ghiaur; al, kaur; gr, γκιαούρης, gkiaoúris, mk, каур/ѓаур, bg, гяур) meaning "infidel", was a slur historically used in the Ottoman Empire for non-Muslims or, more particularly, Christians in the Balkans. The terms "''kafir"'', "''gawur",'' and "'' rûm"'' (the last meaning "Roman"—actually referring to the Greek population, since they were descended from the Eastern Roman Empire) were commonly used in defters (tax registries) for Orthodox Christians, usually without ethnic distinction. Christian ethnic groups in the Balkan lands of the Ottoman Empire included Greeks (''rûm''), Bulgarians (''bulgar''), Serbs (''sırp''), Christian Albanian (''arnavut'') and Vlachs (''eflak''), among others. The 1911 ''Encyclopædia Britannica'' described the term as follo ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Second-class Citizen
A second-class citizen is a person who is systematically and actively discriminated against within a state or other political jurisdiction, despite their nominal status as a citizen or a legal resident there. While not necessarily slaves, outlaws, illegal immigrants, or criminals, second-class citizens have significantly limited legal rights, civil rights and socioeconomic opportunities, and are often subject to mistreatment and exploitation at the hands of their putative superiors. Systems with ''de facto'' second-class citizenry are widely regarded as violating human rights. Typical conditions facing second-class citizens include but are not limited to: * disenfranchisement (a lack or loss of voting rights) * limitations on civil or military service (not including conscription in every case) * restrictions on language, religion, education * lack of freedom of movement, expression, and association * limitations on the right to keep and bear arms * restrictions on m ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
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