|
Indoxyl Sulfate
Indoxyl sulfate, also known as 3-indoxylsulfate and 3-indoxylsulfuric acid, is a metabolite of dietary that acts as a cardiotoxin and uremic toxin. High concentrations of indoxyl sulfate in blood plasma are known to be associated with the development and progression of chronic kidney disease and vascular disease in humans. As a uremic toxin, it stimulates glomerular sclerosis and renal interstitial fibrosis. Biosynthesis Indoxyl sulfate is a metabolite of dietary that is synthesized through the following metabolic pathway: : → indole → indoxyl → indoxyl sulfate Indole is produced from in the human intestine via tryptophanase-expressing gastrointestinal bacteria. Indoxyl is produced from indole via enzyme-mediated hydroxylation in the liver; ''in vitro'' experiments with rat and human liver microsomes suggest that the CYP450 enzyme CYP2E1 hydroxylates indole into indoxyl. Subsequently, indoxyl is converted into indoxyl sulfate by sulfotransferase enzymes in the live ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Metabolite
In biochemistry, a metabolite is an intermediate or end product of metabolism. The term is usually used for small molecules. Metabolites have various functions, including fuel, structure, signaling, stimulatory and inhibitory effects on enzymes, catalytic activity of their own (usually as a cofactor to an enzyme), defense, and interactions with other organisms (e.g. pigments, odorants, and pheromones). A primary metabolite is directly involved in normal "growth", development, and reproduction. Ethylene exemplifies a primary metabolite produced large-scale by industrial microbiology. A secondary metabolite is not directly involved in those processes, but usually has an important ecological function. Examples include antibiotics and pigments such as resins and terpenes etc. Some antibiotics use primary metabolites as precursors, such as actinomycin, which is created from the primary metabolite tryptophan. Some sugars are metabolites, such as fructose or glucose, which are both p ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
In Vitro
''In vitro'' (meaning in glass, or ''in the glass'') studies are performed with microorganisms, cells, or biological molecules outside their normal biological context. Colloquially called "test-tube experiments", these studies in biology and its subdisciplines are traditionally done in labware such as test tubes, flasks, Petri dishes, and microtiter plates. Studies conducted using components of an organism that have been isolated from their usual biological surroundings permit a more detailed or more convenient analysis than can be done with whole organisms; however, results obtained from ''in vitro'' experiments may not fully or accurately predict the effects on a whole organism. In contrast to ''in vitro'' experiments, ''in vivo'' studies are those conducted in living organisms, including humans, and whole plants. Definition ''In vitro'' ( la, in glass; often not italicized in English usage) studies are conducted using components of an organism that have been isolated fro ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Amino Acid Derivatives
In chemistry, amines (, ) are compounds and functional groups that contain a basic nitrogen atom with a lone pair. Amines are formally derivatives of ammonia (), wherein one or more hydrogen atoms have been replaced by a substituent such as an alkyl or aryl group (these may respectively be called alkylamines and arylamines; amines in which both types of substituent are attached to one nitrogen atom may be called alkylarylamines). Important amines include amino acids, biogenic amines, trimethylamine, and aniline; Inorganic derivatives of ammonia are also called amines, such as monochloramine (). The substituent is called an amino group. Compounds with a nitrogen atom attached to a carbonyl group, thus having the structure , are called amides and have different chemical properties from amines. Classification of amines Amines can be classified according to the nature and number of substituents on nitrogen. Aliphatic amines contain only H and alkyl substituents. Aromatic ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Escherichia Coli
''Escherichia coli'' (),Wells, J. C. (2000) Longman Pronunciation Dictionary. Harlow ngland Pearson Education Ltd. also known as ''E. coli'' (), is a Gram-negative, facultative anaerobic, rod-shaped, coliform bacterium of the genus ''Escherichia'' that is commonly found in the lower intestine of warm-blooded organisms. Most ''E. coli'' strains are harmless, but some serotypes ( EPEC, ETEC etc.) can cause serious food poisoning in their hosts, and are occasionally responsible for food contamination incidents that prompt product recalls. Most strains do not cause disease in humans and are part of the normal microbiota of the gut; such strains are harmless or even beneficial to humans (although these strains tend to be less studied than the pathogenic ones). For example, some strains of ''E. coli'' benefit their hosts by producing vitamin K2 or by preventing the colonization of the intestine by pathogenic bacteria. These mutually beneficial relationships between ''E. col ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Purple Urine Bag Syndrome
Purple urine bag syndrome (PUBS) is a medical syndrome where purple discoloration of urine occurs in people with urinary catheters and co-existent urinary tract infection. Bacteria in the urine produce the enzyme indoxyl sulfatase. This converts indoxyl sulfate in the urine into the red and blue colored compounds indirubin and indigo. The most commonly implicated bacteria are '' Providencia stuartii'', '' Providencia rettgeri'', ''Klebsiella pneumoniae'', ''Proteus mirabilis'', ''Escherichia coli'', '' Morganella morganii'', and ''Pseudomonas aeruginosa''. Signs and symptoms People with purple urine bag syndrome usually do not complain of any symptoms. Purple discoloration of urine bag is often the only finding, frequently noted by caregivers. It is usually considered a benign condition, although in the setting of recurrent or chronic urinary tract infection, it may be associated with drug-resistant bacteria. Pathophysiology Tryptophan in the diet is metabolized by bacter ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Indirubin
Indirubin is a chemical compound most often produced as a byproduct of bacterial metabolism. For instance, it is one of the compounds responsible for the generally benign condition purple urine bag syndrome, resulting from bacteria metabolizing indoxyl sulfate found naturally in urine. Indirubin is a structural isomer (more precisely is position isomer) of indigo dye. Indigo naturalis Indirubin is a chemical constituent of indigo naturalis (also known as qing dai ), which has been used since 627 AD in traditional Chinese medicine. It is essentially the indigo dye as traditionally extracted from plants by fermentation and lime treatment. The dye mixture contains a variety of organic compounds, indirubin and tryptanthrin being possible sources of some pharmacological actions. It is used in realgar/Indigo naturalis, a medication for acute promyelocytic leukemia. Research Indirubin exerts its effects on the human body by downregulating expression of genes. Genes PLK1 and PIN1, b ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Indigo Dye
Indigo dye is an organic compound with a distinctive blue color. Historically, indigo was a natural dye extracted from the leaves of some plants of the ''Indigofera'' genus, in particular ''Indigofera tinctoria''; dye-bearing ''Indigofera'' plants were commonly grown and used throughout the world, in Asia in particular, as an important crop, with the production of indigo dyestuff economically important due to the previous rarity of some blue dyestuffs historically. Most indigo dye produced today is synthetic, constituting several thousand tons each year. It is most commonly associated with the production of denim cloth and blue jeans, where its properties allow for effects such as stone washing and acid washing to be applied quickly. Uses The primary use for indigo is as a dye for cotton yarn, mainly used in the production of denim cloth suitable for blue jeans; on average, a pair of blue jeans requires just to of dye. Smaller quantities are used in the dyeing of wool and ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Indoxyl Phosphatase
In chemistry, indoxyl is a nitrogenous substance with the chemical formula: C8H7NO. Indoxyl is isomeric with oxindol and is obtained as an oily liquid. Indoxyl is obtained from indican, which is a glycoside. The hydrolysis of indican yields β-D-glucose and indoxyl. Indigo dye is a product of the reaction of indoxyl by a mild oxidizing agent An oxidizing agent (also known as an oxidant, oxidizer, electron recipient, or electron acceptor) is a substance in a redox chemical reaction that gains or "Electron acceptor, accepts"/"receives" an electron from a (called the , , or ). In ot ... such as atmospheric oxygen. Indoxyl can be found in urine and is titrated with Obermayer's reagent. Obermayer's reagent is a dilute solution of FeCl3 in hydrochloric acid. References Indoles Enols {{heterocyclic-stub ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Urinary Tract Infection
A urinary tract infection (UTI) is an infection that affects part of the urinary tract. When it affects the lower urinary tract it is known as a bladder infection (cystitis) and when it affects the upper urinary tract it is known as a kidney infection (pyelonephritis). Symptoms from a lower urinary tract infection include pain with urination, frequent urination, and feeling the need to urinate despite having an empty bladder. Symptoms of a kidney infection include fever and flank pain usually in addition to the symptoms of a lower UTI. Rarely the urine may appear bloody. In the very old and the very young, symptoms may be vague or non-specific. The most common cause of infection is ''Escherichia coli'', though other bacteria or fungi may sometimes be the cause. Risk factors include female anatomy, sexual intercourse, diabetes, obesity, and family history. Although sexual intercourse is a risk factor, UTIs are not classified as sexually transmitted infections (STIs). Kidney ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
SULT1A1
Sulfotransferase 1A1 is an enzyme that in humans is encoded by the ''SULT1A1'' gene. Sulfotransferase enzymes catalyze the sulfate conjugation of many hormones, neurotransmitters, drugs, and xenobiotic compounds. These cytosolic enzymes are different in their tissue distributions and substrate specificities. The gene structure (number and length of exons) is similar among family members. This gene encodes one of two phenol sulfotransferases with thermostable enzyme activity. Multiple alternatively spliced variants that encode two isoforms have been identified for this gene. The SULT1A1 enzyme is expressed in outer roots sheath of hair follicles. Minoxidil, the only US FDA approved topical drug for re-growing hair in male and female pattern hair loss (androgenetic alopecia patients) is a pro-drug. Minoxidil is converted to its active form (minoxidil sulfate) by the hair sulfotransferase enzyme (SULT1A1). A large variability in sulfotransferase enzyme expression in hair is observ ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Recombinant Protein
Recombinant DNA (rDNA) molecules are DNA molecules formed by laboratory methods of genetic recombination (such as molecular cloning) that bring together genetic material from multiple sources, creating sequences that would not otherwise be found in the genome. Recombinant DNA is the general name for a piece of DNA that has been created by combining at least two fragments from two different sources. Recombinant DNA is possible because DNA molecules from all organisms share the same chemical structure, and differ only in the nucleotide sequence within that identical overall structure. Recombinant DNA molecules are sometimes called chimeric DNA, because they can be made of material from two different species, like the mythical chimera. R-DNA technology uses palindromic sequences and leads to the production of sticky and blunt ends. The DNA sequences used in the construction of recombinant DNA molecules can originate from any species. For example, plant DNA may be joined to bacte ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Sulfotransferase
Sulfotransferases (SULTs) are transferase enzymes that catalyze the transfer of a sulfo group from a donor molecule to an acceptor alcohol or amine. The most common sulfo group donor is 3'-phosphoadenosine-5'-phosphosulfate (PAPS). In the case of alcohol as acceptor, the product is a sulfate (R-OSO3−), whereas an amine leads to a sulfamate (R-NH-SO3−). Both reactive groups for a sulfonation via sulfotransferases may be part of a protein, lipid, carbohydrate or steroid. Examples The following are examples of sulfotransferases: * carbohydrate sulfotransferase: CHST1, CHST2, CHST3, CHST4, CHST5, CHST6, CHST7, CHST8, CHST9, CHST10, CHST11, CHST12, CHST13, CHST14 * galactose-3-O-sulfotransferase: GAL3ST1, GAL3ST2, GAL3ST3, GAL3ST4 * heparan sulfate 2-O-sulfotransferase: HS2ST1 * heparan sulfate 3-O-sulfotransferase: HS3ST1, HS3ST2, HS3ST3A1, HS3ST3B1, HS3ST4, HS3ST5, HS3ST6 * heparan sulfate 6-O-sulfotransferase: HS6ST1, HS6ST2, HS6ST3 * N-deacetylase ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
