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Hopfian Object
In the branch of mathematics called category theory, a hopfian object is an object ''A'' such that any epimorphism of ''A'' onto ''A'' is necessarily an automorphism. The duality (mathematics), dual notion is that of a cohopfian object, which is an object ''B'' such that every monomorphism from ''B'' into ''B'' is necessarily an automorphism. The two conditions have been studied in the categories of group (mathematics), groups, ring (mathematics), rings, module (mathematics), modules, and topological spaces. The terms "hopfian" and "cohopfian" have arisen since the 1960s, and are said to be in honor of Heinz Hopf and his use of the concept of the hopfian group in his work on fundamental groups of surfaces. Properties Both conditions may be viewed as types of finiteness conditions in their category. For example, assuming ZFC, Zermelo–Fraenkel set theory with the axiom of choice and working in the category of sets, the hopfian and cohopfian objects are precisely the finite set#N ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Category Theory
Category theory is a general theory of mathematical structures and their relations that was introduced by Samuel Eilenberg and Saunders Mac Lane in the middle of the 20th century in their foundational work on algebraic topology. Nowadays, category theory is used in almost all areas of mathematics, and in some areas of computer science. In particular, many constructions of new mathematical objects from previous ones, that appear similarly in several contexts are conveniently expressed and unified in terms of categories. Examples include quotient spaces, direct products, completion, and duality. A category is formed by two sorts of objects: the objects of the category, and the morphisms, which relate two objects called the ''source'' and the ''target'' of the morphism. One often says that a morphism is an ''arrow'' that ''maps'' its source to its target. Morphisms can be ''composed'' if the target of the first morphism equals the source of the second one, and morphism compos ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Injective Object
In mathematics, especially in the field of category theory, the concept of injective object is a generalization of the concept of injective module. This concept is important in cohomology, in homotopy theory and in the theory of model categories. The dual notion is that of a projective object. Definition An object Q in a category \mathbf is said to be injective if for every monomorphism f: X \to Y and every morphism g: X \to Q there exists a morphism h: Y \to Q extending g to Y, i.e. such that h \circ f = g. That is, every morphism X \to Q factors through every monomorphism X \hookrightarrow Y. The morphism h in the above definition is not required to be uniquely determined by f and g. In a locally small category, it is equivalent to require that the hom functor \operatorname_(-,Q) carries monomorphisms in \mathbf to surjective set maps. In Abelian categories The notion of injectivity was first formulated for abelian categories, and this is still one of its primary areas of ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Group Theory
In abstract algebra, group theory studies the algebraic structures known as group (mathematics), groups. The concept of a group is central to abstract algebra: other well-known algebraic structures, such as ring (mathematics), rings, field (mathematics), fields, and vector spaces, can all be seen as groups endowed with additional operation (mathematics), operations and axioms. Groups recur throughout mathematics, and the methods of group theory have influenced many parts of algebra. Linear algebraic groups and Lie groups are two branches of group theory that have experienced advances and have become subject areas in their own right. Various physical systems, such as crystals and the hydrogen atom, and Standard Model, three of the four known fundamental forces in the universe, may be modelled by symmetry groups. Thus group theory and the closely related representation theory have many important applications in physics, chemistry, and materials science. Group theory is also ce ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Category Theory
Category theory is a general theory of mathematical structures and their relations that was introduced by Samuel Eilenberg and Saunders Mac Lane in the middle of the 20th century in their foundational work on algebraic topology. Nowadays, category theory is used in almost all areas of mathematics, and in some areas of computer science. In particular, many constructions of new mathematical objects from previous ones, that appear similarly in several contexts are conveniently expressed and unified in terms of categories. Examples include quotient spaces, direct products, completion, and duality. A category is formed by two sorts of objects: the objects of the category, and the morphisms, which relate two objects called the ''source'' and the ''target'' of the morphism. One often says that a morphism is an ''arrow'' that ''maps'' its source to its target. Morphisms can be ''composed'' if the target of the first morphism equals the source of the second one, and morphism compos ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Discrete Space
In topology, a discrete space is a particularly simple example of a topological space or similar structure, one in which the points form a , meaning they are '' isolated'' from each other in a certain sense. The discrete topology is the finest topology that can be given on a set. Every subset is open in the discrete topology so that in particular, every singleton subset is an open set in the discrete topology. Definitions Given a set X: A metric space (E,d) is said to be '' uniformly discrete'' if there exists a ' r > 0 such that, for any x,y \in E, one has either x = y or d(x,y) > r. The topology underlying a metric space can be discrete, without the metric being uniformly discrete: for example the usual metric on the set \left\. Properties The underlying uniformity on a discrete metric space is the discrete uniformity, and the underlying topology on a discrete uniform space is the discrete topology. Thus, the different notions of discrete space are compatible with one ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Compact Manifold
In mathematics, a closed manifold is a manifold without boundary that is compact. In comparison, an open manifold is a manifold without boundary that has only ''non-compact'' components. Examples The only connected one-dimensional example is a circle. The sphere, torus, and the Klein bottle are all closed two-dimensional manifolds. A line is not closed because it is not compact. A closed disk is a compact two-dimensional manifold, but it is not closed because it has a boundary. Open manifolds For a connected manifold, "open" is equivalent to "without boundary and non-compact", but for a disconnected manifold, open is stronger. For instance, the disjoint union of a circle and a line is non-compact since a line is non-compact, but this is not an open manifold since the circle (one of its components) is compact. Abuse of language Most books generally define a manifold as a space that is, locally, homeomorphic to Euclidean space (along with some other technical conditio ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Stone Space
In topology and related areas of mathematics, a Stone space, also known as a profinite space or profinite set, is a compact totally disconnected Hausdorff space. Stone spaces are named after Marshall Harvey Stone who introduced and studied them in the 1930s in the course of his investigation of Boolean algebras, which culminated in his representation theorem for Boolean algebras. Equivalent conditions The following conditions on the topological space X are equivalent: * X is a Stone space; * X is homeomorphic to the projective limit (in the category of topological spaces) of an inverse system of finite discrete spaces; * X is compact and totally separated; * X is compact, T0 , and zero-dimensional (in the sense of the small inductive dimension); * X is coherent and Hausdorff. Examples Important examples of Stone spaces include finite discrete spaces, the Cantor set and the space \Z_p of p-adic integers, where p is any prime number. Generalizing these examples, any product ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Boolean Ring
In mathematics, a Boolean ring ''R'' is a ring for which ''x''2 = ''x'' for all ''x'' in ''R'', that is, a ring that consists only of idempotent elements. An example is the ring of integers modulo 2. Every Boolean ring gives rise to a Boolean algebra, with ring multiplication corresponding to conjunction or meet ∧, and ring addition to exclusive disjunction or symmetric difference (not disjunction ∨, which would constitute a semiring). Conversely, every Boolean algebra gives rise to a Boolean ring. Boolean rings are named after the founder of Boolean algebra, George Boole. Notations There are at least four different and incompatible systems of notation for Boolean rings and algebras: *In commutative algebra the standard notation is to use ''x'' + ''y'' = (''x'' ∧ ¬ ''y'') ∨ (¬ ''x'' ∧ ''y'') for the ring sum of ''x'' and ''y'', and use ''xy'' = ''x'' ∧ ''y'' for their product. *In logic, a common notati ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Full Linear Ring
In the branch of abstract algebra known as ring theory, a left primitive ring is a ring which has a faithful simple left module. Well known examples include endomorphism rings of vector spaces and Weyl algebras over fields of characteristic zero. Definition A ring ''R'' is said to be a left primitive ring if it has a faithful simple left ''R''-module. A right primitive ring is defined similarly with right ''R''-modules. There are rings which are primitive on one side but not on the other. The first example was constructed by George M. Bergman in . Another example found by Jategaonkar showing the distinction can be found in . An internal characterization of left primitive rings is as follows: a ring is left primitive if and only if there is a maximal left ideal containing no nonzero two-sided ideals. The analogous definition for right primitive rings is also valid. The structure of left primitive rings is completely determined by the Jacobson density theorem: A ring is l ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Field (mathematics)
In mathematics, a field is a set on which addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division are defined and behave as the corresponding operations on rational and real numbers do. A field is thus a fundamental algebraic structure which is widely used in algebra, number theory, and many other areas of mathematics. The best known fields are the field of rational numbers, the field of real numbers and the field of complex numbers. Many other fields, such as fields of rational functions, algebraic function fields, algebraic number fields, and ''p''-adic fields are commonly used and studied in mathematics, particularly in number theory and algebraic geometry. Most cryptographic protocols rely on finite fields, i.e., fields with finitely many elements. The relation of two fields is expressed by the notion of a field extension. Galois theory, initiated by Évariste Galois in the 1830s, is devoted to understanding the symmetries of field extensions. Among other results, thi ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Ascending Chain Condition
In mathematics, the ascending chain condition (ACC) and descending chain condition (DCC) are finiteness properties satisfied by some algebraic structures, most importantly ideals in certain commutative rings.Jacobson (2009), p. 142 and 147 These conditions played an important role in the development of the structure theory of commutative rings in the works of David Hilbert, Emmy Noether, and Emil Artin. The conditions themselves can be stated in an abstract form, so that they make sense for any partially ordered set. This point of view is useful in abstract algebraic dimension theory due to Gabriel and Rentschler. Definition A partially ordered set (poset) ''P'' is said to satisfy the ascending chain condition (ACC) if no infinite strictly ascending sequence :a_1 < a_2 < a_3 < \cdots of elements of ''P'' exists. Equivalently,Proof: first, a strictly increasing sequence cannot stabilize, obviously. Conversely, suppose there is a ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Directly Finite Ring
In mathematics, a set ''A'' is Dedekind-infinite (named after the German mathematician Richard Dedekind) if some proper subset ''B'' of ''A'' is equinumerous to ''A''. Explicitly, this means that there exists a bijective function from ''A'' onto some proper subset ''B'' of ''A''. A set is Dedekind-finite if it is not Dedekind-infinite (i.e., no such bijection exists). Proposed by Dedekind in 1888, Dedekind-infiniteness was the first definition of "infinite" that did not rely on the definition of the natural numbers. A simple example is \mathbb, the set of natural numbers. From Galileo's paradox, there exists a bijection that maps every natural number ''n'' to its square ''n''2. Since the set of squares is a proper subset of \mathbb, \mathbb is Dedekind-infinite. Until the foundational crisis of mathematics showed the need for a more careful treatment of set theory, most mathematicians assumed that a set is infinite if and only if it is Dedekind-infinite. In the early twentieth c ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
